Strobe Frequency Modulation

6.163 Strobe Project Laboratory - Dr. Charles Mazel Josquin Corrales Chris Shabsin Peter Sun Ema Yamakawa November 11, 1995

1 Abstract
Stroboscopes ash at very high rates relative to other light emitting sources. It is possible to harness its high ash rate to transmit data in the optic medium. Using frequency modulation (FM) theory and stroboscope equipment, we created a communication system.

2 Materials
Item GenRad Strobotac GenRad Strobotac Photo Electric Pickup Tektronix 150MHz Oscilloscope Tektronix Power Supply and Signal Generator Nerd Kit 3 Bread Boards Global Specialties Protoboard Wire Cutters 3M Electric Tape Phono Plug Wire Circuit Components LM311 Comparator LM741 Op Amps 74LS74 TTL D Flip Flop CA3080 OTA Resistors Capacitors Diodes Model Serial 1531-AB MIT ID#4 1538-A MIT ID#5 MIT ID#3 (\Dolly") 2445 MIT ID#0189788 TM 504 MIT ID#0170055 MIT ID#283 PB-103 22 gauge MIT ID#284

3 Circuit Design
3.1 Sallen-Key Lowpass Input Filter
To prevent the aliasing of the signals, the input signal was put through a low pass lter to make it strictly bandlimited. A lter on the input is called an anti-aliasing lter. We chose Sallen-Key active lowpass lter for its relatively simple circuitry and small transition band. Since we were most interested in maximizing the roll-o rate of the low pass lter, the resistor and the capacitor values were calculated by setting both poles to the cut-o frequency (250Hz). One of the advantages of an active lter was the ability to amplify the signals while attenuating unwanted frequencies. We designed the lter with a double pole, to create a 2

Figure 1: FM Modulation using a VCO

Figure 2: Basic VCO Schematic tighter transition band. To simplify the calculations, the two resistor values (
R R1

and

R2

) and capacitor values (

C1

and

C2

) were

set equal to each other. Also one of the resistor ( 2 ) was replaced by the appropriate potentiometer to allow ne tuning of the lter. 5]

3.2 FM Modulator: Design of a VCO

An ideal voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) generates an output signal of constant amplitude whose frequency is directly proportional to the input signal. Figure 1 shows this behavior which characterizes the essence behind FM modulation. In order to minimize complexity, the VCO used in this project outputs a modulating square wave. Modulators that produce square wave outputs cause greater distortion due to the discontinuities. Therefore, the VCOs housed in modern transmission stations rely on more sophisticated circuits that produce sinusoidal 3

outputs. Fortunately, the e ects are negligible after lowpass ltering. The basic schematic for the VCO is shown in Figure 2. The VCO designed for this project is composed of three basic components: an Operational Transconductance Ampli er (OTA), an inverting integrator and a Schmitt Trigger. The OTA behaves like other operational ampli ers in that its output depends on the di erential input voltage,
v

v+

; ; . However, it di ers from more familiar models in that its output is a current, o ,
v i i

rather than a voltage. The OTA used for this project is the CA3080 which has an output that also depends on a control current b | the ampli er bias current. Since the OTA operates at saturation with parameters dictated in the design speci cations, the device response can be simpli ed to = b sgn
i

= square wave of amplitude

< i

<

1 ma

(1)
e

To con rm that the OTA performs at saturation levels, we can compute Using a voltage divider relationship and assuming that performed below. 2k = 2 2k 2 + 22k k
: : e

from the output voltage o .

is 14 volts,

is obtained from the calculations

14V = 1 27V
:

(2)

Since the control current terminal of the OTA is e ectively the negative supply voltage, -15 volts, the input current can be represented by equation 3. =
e

b + 15V 2 1M
:

(3)

This formula results from the de nition of current which is the potential di erence over the resistance. Therefore, the OTA output wave form is characterized by Figure 3 The inverting ampli er takes the output from the OTA and sends it through an inverting integrator. The output of this stage, 1 ( ), is shown in equation 4.
e t

e1 t

1Z ( ) = ;C

o( )
t

dt

1Z = ; C b( )
i t

dt

b = ;C
i

(4)

Figure 3: OTA: Output versus Time

Figure 4: Inverting Integrator: Output versus Time Using KCL at node

e2 e1

and realizing that the maxima and minima of

e1

occur when

changes state (when

goes through zero), we can nd the peak voltages for the output of the inverting ampli er. The derivation

and calculation for these values are shown in equation 5. 1 1 14 = ; 22 o + 23 2 = ; 22 ( 14 V) + 23 (0 ) = 22 22 22

e e

e1

0 64 V
: i t

(5)

An important characteristic of this wave form is its slope. Since an assumption was made that b ( ) is slowly changing compared to the time constant, we see that the derived slope of in Figure 4. The assumption that the output of the VCO is 14 volts is due to the Schmitt Trigger which has the following characteristic: = 14 V sgn 5 (6)
ib C

will produce the wave form

e2

Figure 5: Schmidt Trigger: Input Voltage versus Output Voltage

Figure 6: Schmidt Trigger: + Terminal Voltage versus Time Figure 5 shows the output of the Schmitt Trigger implemented for our VCO. The binary state characteristics of the Schmitt Trigger lends insight to the behavior of 1 , as well as how a square wave output
e

is generated. The voltage at the positive terminal,

e2

, of the Schmitt Trigger can be computed from a

conversion of equation 5. This derivation and calculation is illustrated in equation 7. 22 1 1 = 23 1 + 23 o = 22 ( 0 64 V) + 23 14 V sgn ( 0 64 V)] 23
e e : : e t

e2

1 22 V
:

(7)

This relationship also describes the wave form of 2 ( ) as the summation of a scaled version of the wave form in Figure 4 and a fraction of a square wave with an amplitude of 14 volts. Figure 6 displays the result of this combination. The frequency of the Schmitt Trigger output can be calculated from a combination of equation (3) and equation (4). Taking note that it only takes half a period for 1 ( ) to go from -0.64 volts
e t

to +0.64 volts and that the capacitance of the circuit is 2000 pF, the computation is as follows:

Figure 7: Conversion of Square Wave into Impulse Train

e1 t

1 ( ) = ;C

21M
:

b + 15

( + 15 V) ) ;0 64 V = ; (0 002 b F)(2 1 M )(4) ) = 1 4 kHz + b (0 093 kHz) (8)

: e T : : F : e : e

The central frequency at which the system oscillates can be found by setting central value for our system is 1.4 kHz. By solving equation 8 for
e

in equation 8 to zero. This

F

when given a , we can determine

e

the input voltage required for a system to oscillate at a higher frequency. For example, this calculation. 14 kHz = 0; 1 4kHz = 3 4 kHz ; kHz kHz 093 0 093
F : : : : :

must equal

approximately 21.5 volts for the production of a frequency 2 kHz higher than the central equation 9 shows

21 5 V
:

(9)

3.3 Trigger Interface: Design of a Di erentiator and Active Full-Wave Recti er

Since the Strobotac will only trigger with an instantaneous potential change of 6 volts to 500 volts, the square wave output produced by the modulator needs to be transformed into a more usable form. The approach utilized by our design involves converting the discontinuities of the square wave into an impulse train. Figure 7 shows the desired response of our converter. Mathematically, this can be accomplished by di erentiating the wave form and taking the absolute value of the result. The circuit implementations of these two operations would be through a di erentiator and an active full-wave recti er. The output of the
1 full-wave recti er can be attached to a standard 4 " plug which interfaces with the Strobotac.

In general, a di erentiator follows the behavior characterized by equation 10.

Figure 8: Schematic of Di erentiator

Figure 9: Schematic of Full-Wave Recti er

out

=;

RC

dv

in

dt

(10)

Figure 8 exhibits a generic di erentiator implementation. With a resistor value of 82 k and a capacitor value of 0.001 F, the di erentiator will have a response time quick enough for the frequencies in our range. However, the output of this stage is an impulse train with every other impulse negative. The active full-wave recti er converts these negative impulses into the proper form by using a pair of diodes to redirect the current. Figure 9 presents a generic schematic. The primary function of the resistors is to prevent damage to the diodes. Therefore, 100 k resistors were used to reduce the current.

3.4 Strobotac issues during design

The impulse train from the demodulator circuit is used to trigger the strobe. We used two di erent Strobotac units while developing the system. We used the external trigger input of both units to precisely control the strobe discharges. The two Strobotac units are the 1531 and the 1538. The 1531 has a maximum frequency of approximately 420 Hz, while the 1538's maximum frequency is approximately 2500 Hz. We used the 1531 for testing of the circuitry while the 1538 was being repaired.

3.5 Design of an Impulse Train Converter

The impulse train of the photocell is not suitable for direct use with the demodulation circuit that phase of the system expects a square wave. To reconstruct the square wave from the information in the impulse train it was necessary to use some digital circuitry|more speci cally, a T ip- op. In order to incorporate this digital TTL circuitry into the system, we surrounded the ip op on either side with voltage conversion circuitry. The photocell output rst needs to be converted to a 0-5V TTL signal for input to the 74LS74 D ip- op. A comparator is used to nd peaks and amplify them over the minimum TTL voltage range. This signal of 0V with +15V peaks is brought into TTL ranges by use of diodes and a resistors. These regulated impulses could now be used to clock the T ip- op. We used a D ip- op chip to implement the T ip- op. The T ip- op outputs the necessary square wave, at TTL levels. Since the current output of the ip- op was not su cient for the next phase of the system, we used an ampli er to connect to the next stage of the circuit.

3.6 FM Demodulator: PLL Characteristics and Design of a Loop Filter

A block diagram of the PLL used in this project is shown below in Figure 10. Since the phase detector and the VCO are contained in the monolithic CD4046, observations about their output characteristics provide a general concept of how the chip operates and the expected behavior. The VCO's job is to make the change in phase linearly dependent on the control voltage c ( ). Equation 11 characterizes this behavior.
v t

Figure 10: Block Diagram of PLL

Figure 11: PLL:

versus the phase di erence

o (t)
dt

o vc (t)

; co ]
v

(11)

This formula typically holds only for a limited voltage and frequency range. The task of the phase detector is to produce an output, between i ( ) and o ( ) as shown in equation 12.
v t v t v

D (t),

proportional to the phase di erence

D (t) = KD

i (t)

; o ( )] =
t

D "(t)

(12)

10

Figure 12: Loop Filter The phase detector used for this project has a bounded error, ( ), that falls within the range 0
" t < " t

()

<

When the error falls within this range, it means that system is phased-locked. Given that the phase di erence is

; o=2

(13)

from near zero to plus 15 volts, a sketch of

versus the phase di erence can be constructed and is shown

K

in Figure 11. Equation 12 and the gure yields a constant, behavior at or

1 4T

D,

of 15/ volts. If an average value output

of 100 Hz at 7.5 volts is chosen as our central frequency, then the phase di erence that will produce such a
2

. Thus,

in equation 11 can be obtained by realizing that

o (t)

dt

o vc (t)

; co ] = 2 ( 1 ; c ) = 200 Hz
v f f

(14)

or more signi cantly,

is approximately 83.8 Hz/volt.

The calculations for the loop lter is mathematically rigorous therefore, most of the following discussion will rely on transfer functions generated with the assistance of Figure 12. The transfer function, ( ), for
F s

the lter can be obtained through impedance methods. ( )=

V

F s

C (t) VD t

1 + sC = 1 = ( 1 + 2 + sC
R2 R R

+1 + 2) + 1 = ( 1
R2 C s R Cs

R2 C R1

"
)
s

R2 C

+ (R1 +1R2 )C

+ R1C 2

(15)

11

) = ( +1 ) and = 1 1 2 2
R R C H s F s

R C

(16)

The system function, ( ), can be derived from ( ) and the relationship obtained from feedback theory. ( )= +
o (s) i (s)
K s

H s

D Ko F (s) s + KD Ko F (s)
K

(s+ ) D Ko (s+ ) (s+ ) s + KD Ko (s+ )

K

(17) (18)

= h

2 s

D Ko (s + 1 + KD Ko

) +

D Ko

i=

( + ) ( 2+ + )
b s s as b

) =
a

1+

D Ko

and =
b

D Ko

(19)
K

Choosing a

R1

of 18 k ,

R2

of 3.3 k ,
:

of 100 pF,

of 83.8 Hz/volt and

:

D
j

of
:

15

volts, there is a zero

at ; , which is approximately ;3 0 104, and there are poles at ;3 0 104

v t

(2 77 104 ).

Supposing that c ( ) remains connected as the control voltage of the VCO, the transfer function between
i input frequency, d dt(t) , and
v

cc (t)

is derived as follows. ) ( ) = ( 2(++ + ) =

b s s as b d

H s

d o (s) dt d i (s) dt

(20) (21) (22)

2 s

dt

( )=
s s

K V

o c (s) D (s)
b=K

cc (s)
V

= +
s

c (s)

Vcc (s) d o (s) dt

s+ o

K V

= c( )

D (s)

( )= o( )
s H s

as

(23)

This treatment yields us a crude low-pass lter with a bandwidth of 6 kHz. To reconstruct the transmitted signal, the demodulated signal needed to be put through another low pass lter. Because the VCO chip could not handle the load of the Sallen Key low pass lter, the signal was rst put through the rst order low pass lter from the 6.003 demodulator circuit, then re ltered by the tighter Sallen Key low pass lter.

12

Figure 13: Schematic of Sallen-Key lowpass lter

4 Procedure
4.1 Construction of an Sallen-Key anti-aliasing lter
Figure 13 shows the Sallen-Key lowpass lter constructed for this project. The cut-o frequency of the lter was tested by inputting a sine-wave, with the frequency near cuto frequency. We observed the frequency at which the amplitude decreased by 3 dB.

4.2 Construction of an FM modulator

Figure 14 shows a more detailed version of the VCO discussed in Section 2.1. This was the modulator built for this project. One channel of an oscilloscope was connected to node A and the tap on the 100 k potentiometer was set at the top so the bu er ampli er functioned as a source follower. The signal generator was set to have an output of zero amplitude and the o set knob was switched "ON". The o set voltage was carefully adjusted until the voltage at node A was zero. The FM output wave form was observed at nodes A, B and C. The frequency and the amplitude of these waveforms were veri ed with the theoretical results. Then, one channel of the scope was connected to the FM output and the other was returned to node 13

Figure 14: Schematic of FM modulator

14

Figure 15: Schematic of Di erentiator, Recti er and Trigger Plug A. The o set voltage was adjusted by 2 volt increments over its entire range. As designed, the voltage frequency behavior was linear. The o set voltage at node A was readjusted to zero. The signal generator frequency was set to 1 Hz and the amplitude was increased. We observed the output, checking for proper modulation. Setting the input to 1 volt peak-to-peak, the frequency was increased and the corresponding behavior was monitored.

4.3 Construction of a di erentiator and full-wave recti er

Figure 15 shows the complete schematic of the di erentiator, recti er and trigger combination built for this project.
1 Putting a square wave into the input and connecting a probe to the leads of the 4 " plug. We con rmed

the desired output.

15

4.4 The Strobotac

We connected the external trigger input of the Strobotac through a 1 " plug. The two leads of the plug 4 were connected to the output of the impulse train circuit. The Strobotac triggers on a rising edge of the input signal of magnitude of more than approximately 6V. Sending square waves of various frequencies into the input of the di erentiator, we evaluated the strobe's response.

4.5 Photocell Detector

To detect the Strobotac ashes we used the vacuum phototube setup that was used in earlier labs. The vacuum phototube's output was connected by a BNC plug. The settings on the phototube allow the time constant of the detector to receive input frequencies of up to 100 kHz. To interface with the output of the vacuum phototube, we found a standard coaxial cable, soldered leads to it, and plugged it into the next stage of processing. Generally, the signal takes the form of a very low base voltage level. This represented the background light picked up by the tube. Strobe ashes became voltage impulses 3V in magnitude or higher.

4.6 Impulse Train Converter

Figure 16 shows the layout of our impulse train converter. We started the strobe ashing, and placed the photocell next to it. With the photocell connected to the input, we observed the output waveform. It corresponded to the expected square wave.

4.7 Construction of a PLL FM demodulator

Figure 17 shows the complete schematic of the PLL demodulator that was built for this project. To check the VCO section of the CD4046, the 18 k resistor was disconnected. A 10 k potentiometer was connected between +15 volts and ground and the tap was connected to terminal 9 of the DIP. One channel of the oscilloscope was connected to the output of the VCO (terminal 4) and another was 16

Figure 16: Impulse Train Converter circuit

Figure 17: Schematic of PLL FM Demodulator

17

attached to the VCO control voltage (terminal 9). The voltage and its corresponding frequency at half a dozen points were measured and plotted. The 10 k potentiometer was removed and replaced with the 18 k resistor (between terminals 2 and 9). The signal generated was connected to detector input and the controls were set to produce a square wave with zero o set, a frequency of 100 Hz and maximum amplitude. The two probes of the oscilloscope were connected to terminals 14 and 3. The two traces were placed close together to observe the phase relationship. Then, the signal generator frequency was increased. The behavior of the phase was examined and recorded. The frequency was steadily increased until the PLL dropped out of lock. This frequency was recorded. A similar procedure was utilized to check the lower range of the lock. With the PLL in lock, one channel of the scope was shifted to terminal 2. The wave form produced was examined and compared with the theoretical results. The probe was then moved to channel 9. The frequency was adjusted and the wave form was observed. Its behavior was recorded. The same steps were repeated with the probe at the detector output. The peak-to-peak output voltage was measured and recorded at half a dozen frequencies and the results were plotted.

4.8 Experiments with modulator/demodulator

The FM output of Figure 14 was connected to the detector input of Figure 17. The signal generator was connected to the modulator input and set to produce a sinusoidal wave form at 100 Hz, zero o set and approximately 2 volts peak-to-peak (measured at node A). One channel of the scope was clipped to the bu er output (leave the bu er operating as a source follower). The other probe was connected to the detector output. The demodulator output was checked for proper behavior (i.e. output should be a sinusoid if input is a sinusoid).

4.9 Construction of Sallen-Key lowpass lter

Figure 13 shows the Sallen-Key lowpass lter schematic that we reused for the second anti-aliasing 18

Figure 18: Schematic of Audio Power Ampli er lter in the system.

4.10 Constructing an audio power ampli er

Figure 18 shows the audio power ampli er constructed for use in this project. The 0.47 F capacitor was connected to the Sallen-Key lowpass lter. The signal generator was connected to the modulator input and one channel of the scope was connected to the speaker voltage. A sine wave was applied to the modulator input and the resulting audio output was observed for proper behavior.

5 Results
5.1 Detector Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the detector, combined with the intensity of the ashes provided by the 1538, made an e ective range of 1'2" for the system in ambient light. In the dark, transmittance over longer distances could be achieved. 19

Control Voltage vs. Output Frequency of CD4046 2

Frequency (KHz)

0 0 2 4 6 8 Voltage (V) 10 12

Figure 19: Plot of data collected from demodulator

5.2 Verifying demodulator response

Figure 19 shows the linear response expected from our demodulator.

6 Discussion
We can make a few comments regarding the expected limitations constraining overall system performance. The rst issue concerns the expected bandwidth of any stroboscope, FM based communication system. The 1538 Strobotac can ash up to 2.5 KHz. The human auditory hearing ranges from 20Hz to 20KHz. Thus we cannot transmit the full human auditory range. Secondly the Nyquist Sampling Theorem tells us that the critical sampling rate is twice the maximum frequency present in the input signal. Since the Strobotac has a maximum ash rate of 2.5 KHz, one half that is 1.25 KHz. Thus we cannot not expect to recover signals that change faster than 1.25 KHz. This gure illustrates this:

20

Higer frequency signals become aliased and look like a lower frequency signal

Figure: Nyquist Sampling Theorem Thirdly we have an expected band width of 1.25 KHz. This band width is split evenly across positive and negative frequencies. Therefore, the maximum signal we can ideally transmit must not change faster than 625 Hz, four times slower than the maximum perceived auditory range. Lastly choosing to output an impulse at the rising and falling edges of the FM square wave resulted in driving the strobe twice as fast as necessary. Our maximum recoverable signal was reduced further to 312.5 Hz. This was seen experimentally with our system having a band width of 269 Hz. Higher quality passive elements could probably improved system performance closer to the 312.5 Hz optimal mark. After further analysis, our system did not need to lose the nal one half bandwidth. The paradigm of the carrier frequency assumes that the input signal will remain constant through the duration of one sampled cycle. In this case, the input signal is said to be bandlimited. We force this constraint with the Sallen-Key lowpass lter stage at the input of the system. A lter on the input is called an anti-aliasing lter. If the signal changed more rapidly than the carrier frequency (assuming no anti-aliasing lter), then this would produce an aliased signal that would fail any reconstruction process. This gure illustrates this:

21

X(f)

X(f)

-Fc carrier frequency

Fc

-Fc Aliased signals

Fc

Bandlimited signal centered at the

Figure: Bandlimited and aliased signals As it turns out, losing the second half of the strobe bandwidth is not such a bad thing. We could modify our circuit to double sample the input. The bene t of using extra samples with the double edged impulse train is an improved noise rejection band. The Nyquist theorem states that it is possible to completely reconstruct a signal as long as we sample at a rate greater than twice the maximum frequency present in the signal. When signals are sampled at this rate, the frequency domain picture produces adjacent, i.e. touching spectra. The following gure depicts signals sampled at the Nyquist rate. In order to recover the signal requires a Sallen-Key lter with an in nitely sloped transition band, i.e. an ideal lter. Thus we are able to gain better noise reduction using oversampling.
Y(f)

Sampled exactly at the Nyquist rate requires ideal filter to recover

Figure: Signals sampled precisely at the Nyquist rate The Sallen-Key lowpass lters on either end of the system had matched band passes. The double pole created a tighter transition band, which was produced a better tone quality on the output. It is possible to calculate some optimal sampling frequency based on the order and types of low pass lter available, but the bene ts were diminished by amount of e ort required to determine this. Sallen-Key was a 22

convenient low pass lter to use given the straight forward math needed to achieve the desired e ects. The fact that it uses an active element op-amp creates a better performing lowpass lter than a passive element lter could achieve. A higher order Butterworth, Chebyshev, or Elliptical lter would require engineering software to aid with the circuit design, but this was not necessary for our application. It's pretty notable that sinusoidal wave forms were better to reproduce than input wave forms with sharp breaks such as a triangle or square wave forms. If one looked at the system function of the overall system from a signal processing point of view, mainly the FM modulator and demodulator stages, it is pretty clear that the system will end up reproducing a lowpass ltered version of the input (Equation 23). Low pass lters have a characteristic smoothing e ect, exactly the e ect we observed with the triangle and square wave forms. Although our system does not soar on any standard of audio sound performance, we can consider other universal communication systems whose performance is not picture perfect either. Standard telephony communication systems have a bandwidth of 3 KHz. The bottle neck with our system is, of course, the Strobotac 1538. Supposing we could replace that with faster strobe, we could realize improvements with our current system up to one-hundred fold before limitations of other stages begin to surface. Another way to achieve a larger bandwidth would be to add strobes in parallel. Suppose that we could boost the band width of the Strobotac 1538 to 563 Hz using optimized lowpass lters. Obtaining a human auditory band width range would require 36 Strobotac 1538's operating in parallel. Since that we could transfer one bit of information at a rate of 269 Hz, our communication system operated at 269 baud. Thus our rst attempt yielded a through-put as good as some early modems. The range of the Strobotac ash was about one foot in a well lit room. The sensitivity of the light detector was an essential factor in distinguishing background white light from the strobe ash. Unfortunately we could not test the communication system in the Strobe Lab at the Edgerton Center since the equipment was not available, but I noted that the vacuum cell light detector could pickup ashes up to 10 feet in dim light. The tiny speakers we used were probably the lowest quality element of the entire system. The output signals produced were not entirely garbled, but we could not tell judging from the tones coming from that 23

speaker. Christopher Parkenings "A Tribute to Segovia" sounded like a toy music box at the anti-aliasing lter stage. Industrial music, e.g. Nine Inch Nails, on the other hand, sounded pretty much the same.

7 Conclusion
By modern communication system standards, our system was a novel use of the stroboscope essentially. Factors such as band width, transmission distance, and output quality severely limit the usefulness of the system. It would be easier to use the human faculty of speech to communicate rather than use our system. However there are ways to improve overall quality at every one of these aspects. Faster strobes in parallel can increase the band width. Fiber optic cable can increase distance. Better lowpass lters can improve output quality. Thus our system design is good enough to withstand improvements in stages, whereas other systems my need to be entirely scraped. The technology that represents the fundamental core of our system is powerful enough to be used in modern communication systems. The strobe transmission system stage could easily be replaced with a laser or electromagnetic system instead. Much can be said about the signal processing theory required to make such a system work at all. Getting this project to work was a mini-course in signal theory itself, not to mention the circuit theory required to realize a functional model. All in all, we saw it as a chance to apply our knowledge from many areas and blend it into one work of engineering art.

8 Bibliography References
1] Motorola Linear and Interface Integrated Circuits. Phoenix, AZ: Motorola Literature Distribution, 1988. 2] Type 1531-AB Strobotac Electronic Stroboscope Instruction Manual. Concord, MA: General Radio Company, 1967. 24

3] Edgerton, Harold E. Electronic Flash, Strobe. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1987. 4] Horowitz, Paul and W. Hill. The Art of Electronics. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989. 5] Karu, Zoher Z. Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple. Cambridge, MA: ZiZi Press, 1995. 6] Veen, Frederick V. Handbook of Stroboscopy. Concord, MA: General Radio Company, 1966.

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