Food Technology Summary

Chapter 8 – Sectors and aspects of the Australian food

industry:
Glossary:
Term Meaning
Agriculture The cultivation of land to produce crops and/or animals

Agri-food chain The production and supply of food for the consumer

AQIS (Australian A government body whose main role is to protect

Australia’s food supply from contamination
Quarantine
Inspection Service
Aquaculture The production of plants or animals in water

Biotechnology Use of micro-organisms, or their products, for specific

purposes such as the making of food with certain
desirable attributes
Catering To provision of food and service for functions, usually
for a commercial or scientific purpose
‘Clean green’ A description of food which is produced in an
environment fee from chemical contaminants
Embargo A ban placed on the importation of a product

Fisheries The cultivation of various cold-blooded aquatic species,

usually for a commercial or scientific purpose
FSANZ (Food An independent legislative body whose main role is to
standardise food laws
Standards
Australia New
Zealand
Genetic engineering A process which involves removing a gene from a living
organism and transferring the gene to another living
organism. This is usually done to improve the
characteristics of the organism which as the gene
added, such as quick-growing, high yielding tomato
plant
Legislation A law passed by parliament that says what can and
can’t be done
Manufactured Foods which have been made or produced by hand or,
more frequently, machinery. Manufactured foods are
foods often processed foods that have undergone several
processing steps
Multinational Belonging to more than one country, or influenced by
more than one country
Policies Government strategies put in place to achieve specific
improvements, such as government policy on food
safety issues, ‘Food Safety Campaign Group’.
Primary industries Those businesses that produce food in its most simple
form (i.e. plants and animals)
Primary produce Food which is produced in its natural state, such as
meat, fruit, vegetables, eggs
Processing A series of actions that change food from its natural
state to a slightly or significantly new form; for example,
harvested, washed potatoes have undergone minimum
processing whereas frozen chips are a more processed
form of potato
Quota The total amount of goods that can be imported

Recall Removal of goods that may be a consumer safety

hazard from sale, distribution and consumption
Subsidy Direct aid given to food producers

Tariff A tax or duty imposed by a government on imports or

exports
Technology The scientific approach used to improve productivity,
quality and consistency (may be simple, such as a
hand mixer, or complex, such as the process of
monitoring supply of stock)
Value-added The processing of goods to increase their selling price

 Sectors of the agri-food chain include agriculture and fisheries,

food processing/manufacturing, food service, and catering and
food retail. These sectors are not independent but, rather, are
linked like a chain, with each sector being affected by issues faced
by other sectors
 The Australian food industry involves the organised production,
processing, storage and marketing a range of food products
 To date, Australia has had a very profitable food industry with a
strong international export focus
 All sectors of the agri-food chain are developing, with changing
consumer demands and trends, as well as technology, being some
of the biggest driving forces.
Driving forces behind change in Food examples
the Australian Food Industry
1. Advances in science and Genetically engineered food items,
technology such as tomatoes without seeds
2. A concern for food safety - Strict guidelines and
standards must be met for a
food to be sold in Australia
- Restrictions on labelling of
foods with misleading
nutritional claims
3. An increase in the demand Removal of fat and manufacturing
for healthy and nutritious procedures that reduce fat in
food animal products, such as lean pork
4. Rising community Reduction of chemical residue in
expectations for plants and animals for human
responsible environment consumption, such as organically
and animal management in grown fruits and vegetables and
food production hormone-free chicken
5. World and local issues Recognition and financial
such as drought, economic assistance for local farmers and
and political change, and humanitarian aid after natural
local and international disasters, such as drought
events assistance for wheat and sheep
farmers
 Emerging Risks Benefits
technology
Genetic - Imprecise technology – a - Genetic
engineering gene can be cut precisely engineering
from the DNA of an reduces the
organism, but the insertion costs of
into the DNA of the target production,
organism is basically meaning that
random. Consequently, the poor can
there is a risk that it may afford more
disrupt the functioning of food and be
other genes essential to more self-
the life of that organism sufficient
- Side effects – scientists - Better
do not yet understand resistance to
living systems completely weeds, pests,
enough to perform DNA and diseases
surgery without creating
mutations which could be
harmful to the
environment and our
health
- Widespread crop failure –
genetic engineers intend
to profit by patenting
genetically engineered
seeds. This means that
when a farmer plants
genetically engineered
seeds, all the seeds have
an identical genetic
structure. As a result, if a
fungus, virus or a pest
develops which can attack
this crop, there could be
widespread crop failure
- Threatens our entire food
supply – insects, birds and
wind can carry genetically
altered seeds into
neighbouring fields and
beyond. Pollen from
 transgenic plants can
cross-pollinate with
genetically natural crops
and wild relatives
- No long-term safety
testing – genetic
engineering uses material
from organisms that have
never been part of the
human food supply to
change the fundamental
nature of the food we eat.
Without long-term testing,
no one knows if these
foods are safe
- Toxins – genetic
engineering can cause
unexpected mutations in
an organism, which can
create new and higher
levels of toxins in foods
- Allergic reactions –
genetic engineering can
also produce unforeseen
and unknown allergens in
foods
- Decreased nutritional
value – scientists estimate
that plants genetically
engineered to be
herbicide-resistant will
greatly increase the
amount of herbicide use.
Farmers, knowing that
their crops can tolerate
the herbicides, will use
them more liberally
- Ecology may be damaged
– the influence of a
genetically engineered
organism on the food
chain may damage the
local ecology. The new
 organism may compete
successfully with wild
relatives, causing
unforeseen changes in
the environment
Transgenic - Consumer acceptability - Can reduce
meats could be an issue effects of
- Danger if transgenic chemicals on
animals escaped they the environment
could out-breed traditional - Injection of
stocks causing imbalance growth
in food supply for these hormones can
animals result in leaner
meat and the
ability of the
meat industry to
have stock
reach market
potential
quicker, so
improving profit
and supply
Organic - Foods can be more - Chemical-free
farming expensive production
- Lower productivity - Environmentally
friendly
agricultural
practices mean
less harm to the
environment

Levels of operation:
Level of Advantages Disadvantages
operation and
mechanisation
Household - Can specialise, often - Cannot take
producing gourmet advantage of state-of-
items the-art production
- May be able to satisfy equipment
niche markets leading - Low yield or output
to greater
 opportunities if item is - May not be financially
successful in the viable
market - Hard to maintain
- Can allow person to consistency and
work from home and quality of produce
work more flexible - Production affected
hours by seasonal nature of
- Operating costs are supplies
reduced because no
rental of factory
premises is required
Small business - Greater flexibility to - Unable to store large
diversity and switch to quantities of
making different ingredients or goods
products - Limited opportunity to
- Access to small-scale source different
commercial equipment suppliers due to small
- Good local customer scale
base - Must be profitable to
remain competitive
with larger companies
- Need to be in an ideal
location
Large company - Large-scale production - Less likely to produce
possible boutique, specialised
- Provides employment items
to many - Higher likelihood of
- Large profit technical problems
- Enjoys the benefits of given large-scale
automation production methods
- Can run continually, used
often ‘24/7’ - High cost of
- Exerts greater machinery and
influence in food maintenance
sector, with larger - Open to extortion
voice when dealing attempts
with government - More removed from
- Leads the way in the customer
technology, quality - Possibility of
assurance, research industrial action and
and development and intervention of unions
career opportunities during disputes
- Expensive to buy into
company
Multinational - High volume of - Open to extortion
produce attempts
- Provides employment - Negative media felt
to many worldwide
- Potential for higher - Must adhere to
profit given standards set by
advantages of large- multinational
scale production company
- No opportunity to
diversify or to create
 - Consistent quality of unique products due
product and standards to corporate nature of
worldwide company
- High degree for
computerisation and
technology
- Often run 24 hours a
day, 7 days a week

Consumer influences:
Social trends Changing demand Examples of
products
Single parent Low-cost nutritious foods Cheaper cuts of meat
Fruits and vegetables in
families increasing season
Dual income Value-added quickly prepared Home meal
meals replacements
families increasing
More mobile Increased interest in takeaway Takeaway meal (e.g. fish
foods and chips, Chinese food)
population
Busier lifestyles More ‘instant’ foods Prepared sauces
Frozen vegetables
Meats which can be
prepared quickly by
grilling or frying
More time spent Increased in consumption of Restaurant meals
foods prepared and eaten
away from home outside the home
Smaller family size Less use of cheaper, filling Less use of breads and
foods cereals
Improved Use of equipment which Microwaves
increases the efficiency of food Home freezers
technology storage and preparation in the Blenders
home
Higher standard of Better understanding of diet- Foods low in fat, salt and
related health issues sugar
education Fibre-rich foods
Fresh as opposed to
processed foods
Increased life Many elderly people live alone Single serves or small
portions are important in
expectancy packaging and sales
Greater concern for Methods of production which are Organic foods
environmentally friendly Packaging which is
environmental reduced, reusable and/or
issues recyclable
  Research and development in the Australian food industry is
encouraged and supported by organisations such as the CSIRO
and FSANZ
 Quality assurance is a priority in the Australian food industry and
manufacturers implement strict standards of quality control, often
using the HACCP system
 Organic farming is gaining in popularity, mainly due to its positive
effect on the environment
 The Australian food industry is a significant contributor to our
overall economy. It not only provides a large portion of the
population with employment but also brings billions of dollars into
the country each year
 There is a wide range of career options, from unskilled to
specialised positions, available to those choosing to work in the
food industry.

Legislation:
Federal government State government Local government
Trade practices Act 1974: Occupational health and safety Appointment of environmental
1. Controls restrictive trade Act 2000: health office (EHOs):
which can in the form of This act protects the health, An environmental health officer can
- Misuse power safety and welfare of people at be appointed as food surveillance
- Resale price work. The main purpose of this officer aligned with the Food Act.
maintenance legislation is to reduce work- The officer is responsible for the
- Protection of competition related accidents and eliminate routine inspection of all food
- Exclusive dealings risks to health and safety at premises in the local area.
- Price discrimination work. Employers must follow a
2. Restricts companies from code of practice which is a guide
‘unconscionable conduct’; to conduct for meeting
that is, unprincipled occupational health and safety
behaviour standards in the workplace
3. Provides consumer
protection from unfair
practices such as:
- Misleading conduct
- Bait advertising
- Offering gifts and prizes
It also provides:
 - Product safety and Health Acts: Codes for inspection of food and
information The Health Act is enforced by food premises:
- Conditions and each state and territory. Local councils form their own codes
warranties The regulations of this Act for inspection of food and food
4. Controls liability for detective cover: premises. The code covers the
goods - Personal hygiene regularity of inspections by food
- General sanitary surveillance officers and the
conditions exemption of any food premises
- Pest control from inspection
- Management of
infectious diseases
- Storage, slaughter
and sale of meat.
Fisheries Management Act 1991: Fertilisers Act 1985: Codes for the construction and
This Act aims to prevent the This Act enforces the sale alteration of food premises:
exploitation of fisheries resources regulation of soil-improving These codes are formed by
and to assist in maintaining agents and trace elements individual councils and cover:
ecologically sustainable products. It is used to ensure - Building materials used
development. It also addresses unsafe levels of heavy metals in food premises
actions of the fishing industry and other soil contaminants do - Installation guidelines
not contaminate foods used for for fixtures and
human consumption. It also equipment such as
covers protection of exported ovens and refrigerators,
food products to comply with ventilation, toilet areas
contaminant levels and window displays
Dairy Produce Act 1986: Fisheries Management Act
The marketing and export of dairy 1994:
produce is covered by the Act, as This Act enforces protection and
well as collection of certain levels in development of fishery
the dairy industry resources in NSW for the benefit
of present and future
generations.
HACCP: Food Act 2003 (NSW):
‘Hazard Analysis Critical Control This Act enforces food
Points’ is the internationally accepted standards and hygiene
prevention and risk-based food regulations in the food industry.
safety system. All registered food It deals with areas such as
premises are required to prepare and adulteration, false description,
lodge with relevant government unlawful practices and false
authorities a Food Safety Program advertising.
that conforms to HACCP guidelines
Imported Food Control Act 1992: Protection of the Environment
This Act is to ensure all food Operations Act 1997:
imported to Australia meets This Act applies to the noise
Australian food standards and the produced during food
requirements of public health and processing and is enforced by
safety. It lists special requirements the environment protection
that imported food must meet such authority.
as labelling, packaging, additive and
preservative use.
Gene technology Act 2000: Fair Trading Act 1987:
This Act is to ensure public health This Act legislates fair and
and safety and to protect the honest business practices
environment by identifying and protecting both consumers and
managing potential risks associated traders. It enforces sanctions
with genetically modified foods. It against a wide range of unfair
covers all food sold for human trade practices. It also provides
consumption. safety and information
standards to be set between
suppliers and customers
 Food Standards Australia New Trade Measurement Act 1989:
Zealand Act 1991: This Act ensures the accurate
This Act provides a focus for co- measurement of equipment
operation between governments, the used for weighing and how the
food industry and the community to equipment is used in front of the
establish and maintain uniform food consumer. Weigh is checked as
regulation in Australia and New a part of quality control under
Zealand this Act
Export Control Act 1982:
These are very specific Federal
regulations regarding export food
sales. All exported food must comply
with prescribed Goods Order

Positive Negative Interesting

 Nutrition labels - allows  Food waste - due  Variety of food
consumers to make more to an abundance choices - fresh,
informed in our food supply. packaged &
 convenience.

choices e.g. assessing the More automation both healthy (e.g. low
fat content for a low-fat for manufacturing fat, low salt, sugar
diet, assessing food, therefore free, high fibre) &
the sugar content for less jobs, can also less healthy e.g.
diabetes, lead to physical snack foods,
contamination processed, additives)
from machinery
 


 Healthy convenience  Food product  GM Foods - although

foods: 1. meals e.g. lean range of unhealthy controversial, there
cuisine, snacks has led to are some benefits,
more diet-related e.g.
illnesses, e.g.
heart disease,
diabetes


 gluten free options for  the development of
allergies/intolerances 2. Golden rice for
snacks e.g. Munchables, developing countries
100% fruit snacks/wraps, -is a cheap staple
high fibre/low GI muesli and can increase the
bars ("Carmen’s") Vitamin A content &
reduce vision
problems


 Organic food production -   Exports - +ve:

greater choice of organic greater worldwide
foods available resulting in market share, e.g.
less damage to the meat export industry.
environment and greater -ve: less control of
health benefits animal cruelty - poor
slaughter of animals
in overseas
countries, e.g.
Indonesia

Chapter 9 – Policy and legislation:

 The difference between legislation and policy is that policy

provides an overall framework for the food industry whereas
legislation sets out prescribed laws
 Advisory groups play an important role in influencing policy and
legislation
 Some food industries are self-regulated
 State government legislation plays an important role in ensuring
that food items are safe and suitable for human consumption.
Legislation such as the Food Act 2003 helps to reinforce the
importance of food safety.
 FSANZ is an independent statutory agency that plays a
fundamental role in the food industry. It implements food standards
and codes of practice, and issues food product recalls
 The Food Standards Code describes standards for food producers
and manufacturers regarding food safety and the composition of
 food. It includes the use of additives and preservatives and how
products should be labelled.
 The Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS) helps to
protect our food industry by inspecting imported food and certifying
exported food
 The federal government assists the Australian food industry by
developing policies that apply to food manufacturers, producers
and consumers. Current policies that pertain to the food industry
include various trade policies and health and nutrition policies.
 Free trade agreements have had a significant impact on the food
industry by reducing trade barriers, tariffs and subsidies, making
our food industry more competitive and diverse.

Chapter 10 – Production, processing and preservation:

Glossary:
Term Meaning
Active packaging The use of packaging materials designed to
provide a barrier external contaminants and to
interact with the air in the package, creating an
atmosphere that results in longevity of the food
product.
Automated Use of machines to handle and control processing
from raw materials to the finished product.
Computerised Use of sensors in production to enable large
amounts of data to be stored to ensure
production.
Critical control Parts of the production process identified to be a
points point where a hazard could occur.
Enzymatic Chemical substances that act as catalysts in
activity chemical reactions in food, such as browning of
meat and ripening of fruit and vegetables.

Equipment A collection of tools used for processing.

Food additive A substance that is added to food to enhance the
food product and is not normally consumed on its
own.
Food The breakdown of food so that it is unfit for
deterioration consumption.
Food Activities that use manual, automated and
manufacture computerised processes to produce a food
product from a raw material.
Food The processing of food to eliminate the conditions
preservation that cause food spoilage and deterioration.
HACCP A quality management system that identifies
potential hazards within the production of a
specific food product.
Integral Processes that are a part of the whole production
processes process.
MAP packaging The starting atmosphere in the packaging is
adjusted to produce a gas mix that will increase
shelf life.
Microbial Food spoilage caused by bacteria, yeasts and
contamination moulds.
Preservation Processes used to prolong the optimum quality of
processes food.
Principles of The control of factors that contribute to food
food deterioration.
preservation
Processed food A food product that has been produced from raw
materials.
Production run Conversion of raw materials into a final product
within a certain timeframe.
Quality Guarantee that standards in food manufacture are
assurance maintained so that food quality is not
compromised.
Quality control Methods used to ensure that product quality is
maintained.
Raw materials Any food material that is used in the production of
another processed food product.
Sous vide Food is cooked, vacuum packed and chilled for
later use.
Specification A detailed description of materials used.

 A raw ingredient can be defined as any product that is used in the

manufacture of another processed food
 Raw materials include ingredients, processing materials, additives
and packaging
 Manufacturers specify the exact characteristics required of the
raw materials and conduct quality control tests before accepting
them.
 Food additive use is regulated by FSANZ
 Additives may be used in foods to restore or improve taste and
appearance, improve keeping quality and extend shelf-life, and
provide foods for special needs
 The greater the ‘level of production’, the more technology used in
the manufacturing plant and the less manual labour
 Manufacturing equipment completes similar tasks to domestic
equipment, just on a much larger scale.
 Internal transportation of ingredients in large-scale manufacturing
plants is via stainless steel pipes connecting storage areas with
the production line
 Filtration, sieving and centrifuging are examples of separation
processes
 Grinding, milling and chopping are examples of size reduction
processes.
 Heating processes include baking, evaporation, HTST
pasteurisation and UHT sterilisation. The equipment used include
tunnel ovens, evaporators and heat exchangers.
 Cooling processes include refrigeration, blast chilling and
freezing. The equipment used for these unit operations include
blast chillers and freezers, plate and tunnel freezers, and
immersion freezing units. Freezing can be used along with
dehydration to create freeze-dried products
 Dehydration processes can be applied to liquids and solids. The
equipment used include tunnel and cabinet dryers, and spray
dryers
 Production processes are produced in flow charts to allow easier
analysis of each stage of processing and for HACCP
 HACCP involves seven stages and assists in ensuring the
production of safe foods
 The Occupational Health and Safety Act focuses on safe
production environments for employees
 Food preservation is an essential goal of the food industry
 Food spoilage occurs because of micro-organisms, enzymes,
rodents and insects, and environmental factors such as warm
temperatures, air, moisture, light.
 In favourable conditions, micro-organisms will double in number
every 20 minutes
 Common food poisoning bacteria include Salmonella,
Staphylococci, and Clostridium perfringens. Clostridium botulinum
is less common but more deadly
  The procedures and principles of preservation that are applied in
all preservation processes are:
- Hygienic handling to prevent cross-contamination
- Removal of visual contamination
- Exclusion of air
- Removal of moisture
- Addition of chemical substances
- Controlling of temperature
The more principles applied to any one food, the greater the shelf-life of
the food.
 Examples of preservation processes include pasteurisation,
canning, pickling, freezing, dehydration and fermentation
 Manufactured foods must be effectively packaged to ensure that
preservation goals created by processing are achieved and
maintained
 Each food has a limited time (shelf-life) when it is nutritionally at its
best, safe to eat and appealing to look at. This is achieved by
using one or more principles of preservation such as temperature
control, the removal of moisture, the exclusion of air and the
control of pH levels
 Production systems are the ways the processes of food production
are organised and applied

FUNCTION IN SPECIFIC
ADDITIVES FOOD PRODUCTS

Restore flavour and odour lost through

FLAVOUR food processing

Improve the existing flavour of a

FLAVOUR ENHANCERS product

Either restore colour lost in the

processing or improve the physical
COLOURS appearance of the food

Replace nutrient loss that occurs

VITAMINS/MINERALS during processing and storage
 Improve texture and mouth-feel of
MINERAL SALTS processed foods

Prolong the shelf-life of a product by

ANTIOXIDANTS preventing oxidation

Absorb moisture from the atmosphere

HUMECTANTS so food does not dry out

Allow oil and water to mix in the

production of foods using these
EMULSIFIERS ingredients

Inhibit the growth of bacteria, yeast,

PRESERVATIVES mould and viruses

Maintain a constant level of acidity;

FOOD ACIDS produce a sharp taste

THICKENERS Make a food thicker

Impart a sweet taste in low-joule foods
ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS

VEGETABLE GUMS Impart consistency and texture

BLEACHING AGENTS Whiten foods

 Domestic Industrial equipment
Process used Purpose Food example
equipment used used
1. Separation The process of Sieve - Filtering - Separation of
a. filtration passing a liquid systems cheese curd from
through a filter so - Microbial air water
solid particles are filters - Used in dryers in the
removed production of
powdered products
such as milk
b. sedimentation The use of - centrifuge - separation of cream
gravitational or - spray drier from whole milk
centrifugal forces
to remove solids
from liquids
2. grinding and The process of - Food - computerised - grinding salt so it is
milling reducing raw processor mills easier to handle
material size - Grinder - grinding peanuts to
which may be - Mortar and make peanut butter
required to: pestle - flour from wheat
~ make raw
materials easier
to handle and
suitable for the
final product
~ make a
completely new
product
3. mixing Process used to - electric - defoaming mix - equipment used for
evenly distribute beaters equipment mixing is dependent
 ingredients - wooden - high-pressure on purpose and
through a product spoon mixer what is being mixed
batch - food - large-scale (e.g. a mixer for
processor equipment liquid has a different
- bamix - computerised arm than a mixer for
- blender mixing dough due to
equipment material thickness)
4. heating Process used to - stove - industrial ovens - type of equipment
equipment heat raw - oven - heat used depends on
materials during - microwave exchangers: the nature of the raw
processing oven tubular and materials and
plate heat intensity of heat
exchangers treatment; for
example, tubular
heat exchangers are
used for sauces,
while plate heat
exchangers are only
suitable for liquids
such as fruit juices
5. cooling Process used to - refrigerator - heat - fruits and vegetables
reduce exchangers
temperature of a where steam is
product to slow replaced by
down or stop the chilled water
activity of micro- and refrigerants
organism and - industrial
enzymes refrigerator
6. freezing Process used to - freezer - air blast - meat and cakes
change water freezers - fish and meat
content to ice, - plate freezers - fresh vegetables and
rendering it - immersion ice-cream
unavailable for freezers
microbial growth
or enzyme
activity
7. evaporation Process used to - drier - cabinet dryer - fruits
increase the - salting - tunnel dryer - coffee
solids - bin dryer - tea
concentration of - vacuum dryer - herbs
a liquid food – - drum dryer - powdered milk
liquid in the food - freeze drying
is changed to - spray drying
steam or vapour

Food spoilage factor Preservation principle Preservation method

Microbial activity Temperature control: - pasteurisation
- bacteria Micro-organisms grow or - sterilisation
- yeast produce toxins in specific - freezing
- virus temperature ranges, thus the - chilling
- mould appropriate high or low - canning
temperatures are used
 - ultra-heat treated
(UHT)
Restriction of moisture: - smoking
The amount of available - drying
water in a product will - freeze-drying
determine whether an - salting
organism can grow - sugar
Acidity/pH level: - adding acid
Most pathogenic microbes - fermentation
will not tolerate a pH of less
than 4.2
Exclusion of air: - vacuum packaging
- most organisms need - aseptic packaging
the presence of
oxygen to grow
- not allowing food to
encounter micro-
organisms in aseptic
conditions
Chemical reactions - handling/storage - correct storage (e.g.
- agricultural practices use of refrigeration)
reduces the risk of
chemical reactions
such as rancidity
- using agricultural
practices that reduce
the risk of chemical
residue
Enzyme activity - exclusion of air - reduction in oxygen
- handling levels and
- temperature control temperature can slow
- acidity/pH enzyme activity
- correct handling
ensures minimal
bruising so that
oxygen makes less
contact with internal
tissue
 - use of acid, such as
citric acid, to reduce
browning caused by
enzyme activity

Chapter 11 – Packaging, storage and distribution:

 Packaging has five major functions – to contain, protect, preserve, inform/market the product, and provide
convenience to consumers
 Manufacturers consider a wide range of factors when selecting packaging for a new food product, ranging
from the physical characteristics of the food and the factors that will hasten loss of quality, to the
production facilities and the image of the product that the company wishes to portray, as well as economic
and environmental factors.
 There is a range of packaging materials available, each with its own strengths and weaknesses, that must
be evaluated in terms of the individual product requirements
 Technological developments in packaging have brought about huge changes in the variety of foods
available to consumers. Many of the current developments focus on maintaining the physical quality of
fresh foods and extending their shelf-life
 Modern packages often involve the creation of new packaging materials through laminations or the
inclusion of a specific substance into the packaging mix. The packaging materials created increase the
options for processing and distribution available to manufacturers.
 Packaging technologies will continue to develop, providing a constant range of new product features for
consumers
 The safety of consumers in relation to packaging and labelling is ensured by several laws
 Storage considerations apply to all stages of the food manufacturing process – from the time food is
harvested, during processing, transportation and distribution, to when consumers purchase and use it.
 Therefore, the packaging requirements of the food also change throughout these different stages.
Appropriate packaging is essential for the maintenance of quality and minimisation of waste
 Emerging technology in the food transport and storage sector include more-efficient refrigerated transport
and better ways of tracking food such as Radio Frequency Identification
 Recent uses of technology in food packaging include: packaging that is part of the product (for example,
Sippah straws), nanotechnology, experimentation with new materials such as metallocene polymers, and
improvements in biodegradable packaging
 Nutritional claims may be made on labels so long as they are true, but health claims are subject to more
stringent regulation.

Material Characteristics or advantages Food application

Metal - Steel and aluminium are - Steel is used for
the materials used solid/semi-solid foods
- Inside, the cans are - Aluminium is used for
coated with tin and liquids
sometimes plastic or
lacquer to prevent foods
reacting with the steel.
Highly acidic products will
require coating of the
inside of the can
- Cans made from
aluminium:
 Are cheap
 Provide good protection
 Prevent moisture loss
  Are easy to handle
during processing –
quick and cost effective
 Are displayed and
stored easily
 Have long storage
periods
- Steel is virtually
unbreakable
Aluminium foils and laminations - Most foils are made from - Health bar wrappers
aluminium - Potato chip packets
- Laminations are a
combination of foils and
paper or plastic
- Both are light and flexible
- Paper or plastic add
strength to the foil
- Foil provides good barrier
properties for moisture and
oxygen
Glass bottles and jars - Glass is inert (i.e. does not - Liquids, semi-solid and
react with foods) solid foods
- Odourless and hygienic
- Can be easily sterilised
- Is strong
- Can be reused and
recycled
 - A large variety of foods
can be packaged this way
- Contents can be easily
seen
Paper and cardboard Paper can be treated to suit the - Examples include the food
- Board-based containers type of food being packaged (e.g. canisters used for Pringles
- Bag in a box use of waxed papers for foods high chips
- Multi-ply boards in oil
- Packaging is cheap
- Paper/cardboard is inert
- Paper/cardboard is
recyclable
- Paper/cardboard can be
moulded to suit the shape
of the food (e.g. egg
cartons)
- Paper/cardboard is
sometimes combined with
metal for added protection

Plastics - Rigid packaging is light - Food pouches

- Laminated and strong - Shrink wrap for transport
- Cellulosic - High impact resistance of products
- Poly-propylene - Available in a variety of - Covering of meats
- Copolymers colours, shapes and sizes - Modified atmosphere
- PET - Relatively cheap to - Packaging of vegetables
- PVC produce
 - PVC and PET is
commonly used in rigid
plastics
- Flexible plastic packaging
is versatile and used for a
variety of packaging uses
- Laminates are the
combination of two or
more materials that are
joined by adhesive or heat
- Laminates are strong and
inert due to the use of an
impenetrable plastic (e.g.
ethylene vinyl alcohol on
the inside)

Chapter 12 – food manufacturing and consumers:

 Manufacturers’ packaging choices have a significant impact on resource and energy usage, and landfill.
The selection of recyclable materials is desirable, but some materials are eco-friendlier than others
 Recycling of packaging still uses energy but reduces raw material use. A ‘cradle to cradle’ approach to a
package’s life cycle is preferable to a ‘cradle to grave’ approach
 Environmental codes of practice exist for packaging design. The Packaging Council of Australia
encourages the use of such codes when designing product packaging
 Production processes use significant amounts of energy and water. Management production systems to
avoid waste is the responsibility of each business
 Wastes are generated at all stages of food processing. Manufacturers need to responsibly manage:
- Solid wastes, so that they are suitable as raw materials for other industries
- The treatment of liquid wastes on site to prevent pollution
 Packaging wastes, if not recycled, may not biodegrade
 Technology is advancing all the time. Manufacturers need to ensure that they use the technology available
to enhance the lives of consumers and to sustain the environment.

Product line Health issue Food and eating strategies

High fibre - Bowel cancer - Wholegrain bread and
cereals
- Fresh fruits and
vegetables
- Primary rather than
processed foods
Low-fat - Obesity - Reduced-fat dairy foods
- Coronary heart disease - Lean meats
Low-salt - Hypertension (high blood - Primary rather than
pressure) processed foods
- Manufactured foods which
are salt-free or reduced
salt
 - Avoid use of salt in
cooking and at the table
Low-sugar - Obesity - Avoid confectionary,
- Dental caries cakes, biscuits, desserts,
jams and high sugar
drinks
Cholesterol-free - Coronary heart disease - Select plant foods in
preference to animal
foods (plants do not
produce cholesterol)
Nutrient-enriched - Vitamin or mineral - Select manufactured
deficiencies foods which have food
labels stating vitamins,
minerals, proteins or
carbohydrate have been
added
Chapter 13 – Food product development:

 New food product development is affected by external factors (macro-environment) and internal factors
(micro-environment). A company should have strategies in place to respond to internal factors, which are
more within the company’s control, and external factors, which are more difficult to plan for.
 The following external factors can affect product development:
- Economic environment: the state of the economy can affect product development. Changes in interest
rates and inflation rates, foreign exchange and tax rates as well as wage agreements, salary levels,
drought and natural disaster can influence new product development
 - Political environment: federal, state and local laws affect food product development. Lobby groups and
consumer activism are also external factors the company needs to be aware of.
- Ecological environment: pollution, land degradation and inadequate waste disposal are problems that
need to be taken into consideration when producing food.
 Internal factors that affect food product development include personnel expertise, production facilities,
financial position and company image
 Both external and internal factors affecting food product development depend on the size of the company,
the company structure (private or public company) and the resource base of the company
 It is crucial that a food manufacture can assess the likely consumer acceptability, technological and
economic feasibility and market success of a new food product
Glossary:
Term Meaning
Decline Gradual loss (of market share)
Design brief Description of a solution to an
identical need
Ecological Biological link between organisms
and their environment
Feasibility Investigating the probability of
success
Line extensions Products that resemble another
item except for a change to a
characteristic, (e.g. flavour, size)
Macro environment The broad surroundings
Market research Gathering of information which
provides a description (data)
about the marketplace
Market share Section or percentage of sales
that a product commands
Maturity Maximum growth or development
Me-toos Copies of other products
Micro environment Small aspect(s) of the surrounding
New to the world A product which has never been
seen before
Packaging The container which holds an
item(s)
Primary The original or first-hand
Profitable Able to make a financial gain
Promotion Activities which aim to further the
growth of an item
Prototype A sample or model
Qualitative Relates to qualities or
characteristics
Quantitative Relates to amounts or
measurements
Screening To check the ability or capability
Secondary Not the original
Sensory evaluation To make judgements about
sound, smell, taste, sight, feel
Specifications Statement of requirements
SWOT To identify the strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and
threats related to an investigation
Target market Anticipated or identified
consumers

External Internal
Economic environment: Personnel expertise:
 Exchange rates  Skills levels
 Inflation/recession  Transferable skills
 Unemployment  Changing employment
 Taxation  Importance of education
 Salary and training
 Importance of the food  Flexibility
industry to the Australian  Part-time, casual work
economy
 The economic cycle
Political environment: Production facilities:
 Government  Importance of level of
influences/controls (policy production facilities:
and legislation):  Small volume/one-off
 Price  Batch production
 The environment  Mass production
 Education  Storage
 Working conditions  Distribution
 Community influences
  Lobby groups
Ecological environment: Financial position:
 Natural resource use  stability of the company
 Environmentally friendly  balance between
decisions expenditure and profit
 Arming procedures  investment
 Waste management  resource management
 Packaging  product quality
 ‘clean green’ image  market share/competition
 consequences of disregard
for environmental issues
Technological environment: Company image:
 improved productivity  influenced by:
 increased choice  reputation
 relationship between level  quality
of production and  marketing strategies
technology used  packaging
 cost of technology/cost  price
effective for large-scale
production

Steps in food product development

 design brief: description of the food problem
  idea generation: possible solution to the design brief
 market research: identification of consumer needs is gathered
- primary and secondary sources
- product mapping
- quantitative research
- qualitative research
 product specifications:
- requirements
- target market
- packaging
- pricing
 feasibility study: analysis of resources and anticipated return
 prototype: produce the product to trial and test the consumer response
 test the prototype: evaluate the trial

Chapter 14 – reasons for and types of food product development:

 there is a constant stream of new food products on supermarket shelves because consumers lose
interest in existing foods and want new ones. Manufacturers must develop new foods to remain
profitable
 food manufacturers must identify trends in the Australian community and market segments
 health and environment, consumer demands, changes in technology and the need to produce a
product that is commercially viable are all factors that may affect new food product development
 food manufacturers may select from three types of new food products: me-too, line extensions and
new-to-the-world
 Reasons for food product development
Health issues: Relationship between diet and health:
- overweight/obesity
- cancers
- hypertension
- arteriosclerosis
- stroke
- dental caries
- diabetes
- constipation
Environmental issues: - increased consumer concern for the
environment
- farming methods
- legislation
- waste management
- resource use
- packaging
Convenience and cost: - lifestyles
- value-added foods
- time
- brand names versus generic
Company profitability - market share
 - competitive
- costs versus profit
- supply of cost effective raw materials
- meeting needs of changing market
- appropriate research and development
- promotion
- global impact
Specialised applications Military:
- MRE’s
- B-rations
- T-rations
- Aseptic packaging for fluids
Space:
- Use of technology
- Use of dehydrated foods
- Aseptic packages
Technological developments - Manual versus mechanised production
- Automation
- Quality control
- Scientific approach
- Impact of technology on packaging
Chapter 15 – Steps in food product development:
 the seven steps in food product development are:
1. idea generation and screening, taking into consideration such as finances, processing equipment,
staff expertise, the attributes of the product itself and marketing strategies
2. market research needs to be undertaken to ascertain whether consumers are likely to buy the
new product. Primary and secondary market research should be analysed carefully
3. product specifications
4. feasibility study
5. production process development
6. development of a prototype
7. testing product prototype, e.g. sensory evaluation, consumer testing, packaging tests, storage
trials.

Chapter 16 – Marketing plans:

 marketing plans may be produced oriented or sales oriented
 product planning, price structure, placement, distribution and promotion make up the marketing mix
 the target market is important when determining price
 promotion not only includes advertising, but also personal selling, public relations and sales
promotion. The type of promotion chosen will depend on the budget, target market and product life
cycle
  place refers to where consumers can get access to a product and distribution refers to the process
used to move the product from the producer to the retailer.

Chapter 17 – Diet and health in Australia:

Term Meaning
Allergies A physical insensitivity to a
substance
Cardiovascular Physical system incorporating
the heart and circulatory
system
Food intolerance No immune response, is a
reaction from the body after
build-up of an allergic factor
Functional foods Foods that provide additional
positive body factors in addition
to nutrients present
Heredity Process by which
characteristics are passed on
through genes
Malnutrition A physical condition that is a
result of one or more nutrients
lacking in the diet
Nutrients Chemical substances that are
food structures
Nutrition Scientific study of food
consumption patterns and
nutrient use
Over-nutrition Express of one or more
nutrients in the diet
Phytochemicals Antioxidants that come from
non-nutrient plant chemicals
Probiotics Micro-organisms of human
intestinal origin used to improve
gut flora in individuals
Under-nutrition Inadequate intake of one or
more nutrients in the diet

 Good health is a state of physical, mental and social wellbeing, which means that it is affected by a
wide range of lifestyle factors
 Malnutrition occurs when an inappropriate diet causes health problems and is usually classified as
either over nutrition or undernutrition
 Being overweight or obese are examples of over nutrition, usually caused by energy intake exceeding
energy expenditure. Genetic and hormonal factors can also contribute to obesity. Obesity is
increasingly common in Australia in both children and adults.
 Obesity can be assessed using subjective methods, body composition measurements, waist-to-hip
ratio and body mass index
 Hypertension, or high blood pressure, may be caused by excess sodium intake. Obesity also
contributes to hypertension
 Dental caries occurs when mouth bacteria decay the teeth using substances they make from
carbohydrate foods. Excess intake of sugary or starchy foods that stick to the teeth can contribute
to dental caries
 Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are eating disorders: psychological conditions that are
associated with life-threatening abnormal eating behaviours
 Inadequate fibre intake can cause constipation and contribute to long-term health problems such as
hiatus hernia, varicose veins, haemorrhoids and diverticulitis
 Inadequate iron intake causes anaemia, which is associated with fatigue, headaches and palpitations
 Inadequate calcium intake causes osteoporosis, which leads to a high risk of bone fractures and
changes in bone shape
 Diabetes and cardiovascular disease are both conditions that are associated with overnutrition. Both
can lead to serious long-term health problems
 Indigenous people have a shorter life expectancy than the rest of the population, and have a higher
risk of many diseases. Different factors contribute to this risk but many are being addressed by a
variety of health programs