Cell Theory Cell - structural and functional unit of life Organismal functions depend on individual and collective cell

ll functions Biochemical activities of cells dictated by their shapes or forms, and specific subcellular structures Continuity of life has cellular basis

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Cell Diversity Over 200 different types of human cells Types differ in size, shape, subcellular components, and functions

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Figure 3.1 Cell diversity.

Erythrocytes Fibroblasts

Epithelial cells Cells that connect body parts, form linings, or transport gases

Skeletal muscle cell

Smooth muscle cells

Cells that move organs and body parts Macrophage Fat cell

Cell that stores nutrients

Cell that fights disease

Nerve cell

Cell that gathers information and controls body functions

Sperm Cell of reproduction

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Generalized Cell All cells have some common structures and functions Human cells have three basic parts:
Plasma membraneflexible outer boundary Cytoplasmintracellular fluid containing organelles Nucleuscontrol center

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Figure 3.2 Structure of the generalized cell.

Chromatin Nucleolus

Nuclear envelope Nucleus Plasma membrane

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Cytosol Mitochondrion Lysosome Centrioles Centrosome matrix

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes Golgi apparatus Secretion being released from cell by exocytosis

Cytoskeletal elements Microtubule Intermediate filaments

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Peroxisome

Plasma Membrane Lipid bilayer and proteins in constantly changing fluid mosaic Plays dynamic role in cellular activity Separates intracellular fluid (ICF) from extracellular fluid (ECF)
Interstitial fluid (IF) = ECF that surrounds cells
PLAY

Animation: Membrane Structure

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Figure 3.3 The plasma membrane.

Extracellular fluid (watery environment outside cell) Polar head of phospholipid molecule Nonpolar tail of phospholipid molecule Glycocalyx (carbohydrates) Lipid bilayer containing proteins Outward-facing layer of phospholipids Inward-facing layer of phospholipids Cytoplasm (watery environment inside cell) Cholesterol Glycolipid

Glycoprotein

Integral Filament of Peripheral proteins cytoskeleton proteins

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Membrane Lipids 75% phospholipids (lipid bilayer)

Phosphate heads: polar and hydrophilic Fatty acid tails: nonpolar and hydrophobic (Review Fig. 2.16b)

5% glycolipids
Lipids with polar sugar groups on outer membrane surface

20% cholesterol
Increases membrane stability
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Membrane Proteins Allow communication with environment mass of plasma membrane Most specialized membrane functions Some float freely Some tethered to intracellular structures Two types:
Integral proteins; peripheral proteins

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Membrane Proteins Integral proteins

Firmly inserted into membrane (most are transmembrane) Have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Can interact with lipid tails and water

Function as transport proteins (channels and carriers), enzymes, or receptors

PLAY

Animation: Transport Proteins

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Membrane Proteins Peripheral proteins

Loosely attached to integral proteins Include filaments on intracellular surface for membrane support Function as enzymes; motor proteins for shape change during cell division and muscle contraction; cell-to-cell connections

PLAY PLAY

Animation: Structural Proteins Animation: Receptor Proteins

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Six Functions of Membrane Proteins 1. Transport 2. Receptors for signal transduction 3. Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

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Figure 3.4a Membrane proteins perform many tasks.

Transport A protein (left) that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute. Some transport proteins (right) hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane.

PLAY

Animation: Transport Proteins

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Figure 3.4b Membrane proteins perform many tasks.

Signal

Receptors for signal transduction A membrane protein exposed to the outside of the cell may have a binding site that fits the shape of a specific chemical messenger, such as a hormone. When bound, the chemical messenger may cause a change in shape in the protein that initiates a chain of chemical reactions in the cell.

Receptor

PLAY

Animation: Receptor Proteins

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Figure 3.4c Membrane proteins perform many tasks.

Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix Elements of the cytoskeleton (cell's internal supports) and the extracellular matrix (fibers and other substances outside the cell) may anchor to membrane proteins, which helps maintain cell shape and fix the location of certain membrane proteins. Others play a role in cell movement or bind adjacent cells together.

PLAY

Animation: Structural Proteins

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Six Functions of Membrane Proteins 4. Enzymatic activity 5. Intercellular joining 6. Cell-cell recognition

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Figure 3.4d Membrane proteins perform many tasks.

Enzymatic activity Enzymes A membrane protein may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. A team of several enzymes in a membrane may catalyze sequential steps of a metabolic pathway as indicated (left to right) here.

PLAY

Animation: Enzymes

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Figure 3.4d

Figure 3.4e Membrane proteins perform many tasks.

Intercellular joining Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together in various kinds of intercellular junctions. Some membrane proteins (cell adhesion molecules or CAMs) of this group provide temporary binding sites that guide cell migration and other cell-to-cell interactions. CAMs

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Figure 3.4f Membrane proteins perform many tasks.

Cell-cell recognition Some glycoproteins (proteins bonded to short chains of sugars) serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells.

Glycoprotein

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Lipid Rafts ~20% of outer membrane surface Contain phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol More stable; less fluid than rest of membrane
May function as stable platforms for cellsignaling molecules, membrane invagination, or other functions

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The Glycocalyx "Sugar covering" at cell surface

Lipids and proteins with attached carbohydrates (sugar groups)

Every cell type has different pattern of sugars

Specific biological markers for cell to cell recognition Allows immune system to recognize "self" and "non self" Cancerous cells change it continuously
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Cell Junctions Some cells "free"

e.g., blood cells, sperm cells

Some bound into communities

Three ways cells are bound:
Tight junctions Desmosomes Gap junctions

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Cell Junctions: Tight Junctions Adjacent integral proteins fuse form impermeable junction encircling cell
Prevent fluids and most molecules from moving between cells

Where might these be useful in body?

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Figure 3.5a Cell junctions.

Plasma membranes of adjacent cells

Microvilli

Intercellular space

Basement membrane

Interlocking junctional proteins Intercellular space

Tight junctions: Impermeable junctions prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space.
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Cell Junctions: Desmosomes "Rivets" or "spot-welds" that anchor cells together at plaques (thickenings on plasma membrane)
Linker proteins between cells connect plaques Keratin filaments extend through cytosol to opposite plaque giving stability to cell Reduces possibility of tearing

Where might these be useful in body?

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Figure 3.5b Cell junctions.

Plasma membranes of adjacent cells

Microvilli

Intercellular space

Basement membrane Intercellular space Plaque

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Intermediate filament (keratin) Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together like a molecular Velcro and help form an internal tension-reducing network of fibers.

Linker proteins (cadherins)

Cell Junctions: Gap Junctions Transmembrane proteins form pores (connexons) that allow small molecules to pass from cell to cell
For spread of ions, simple sugars, and other small molecules between cardiac or smooth muscle cells

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Figure 3.5c Cell junctions.

Plasma membranes Microvilli of adjacent cells

Intercellular space

Basement membrane Intercellular space Channel between cells (formed by connexons)

Gap junctions: Communicating junctions allow ions and small molecules to pass for intercellular communication.
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Plasma Membrane Cells surrounded by interstitial fluid (IF)

Contains thousands of substances, e.g., amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, vitamins, hormones, salts, waste products

Plasma membrane allows cell to

Obtain from IF exactly what it needs, exactly when it is needed Keep out what it does not need

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Cytoplasm Located between plasma membrane and nucleus

Composed of
Cytosol
Water with solutes (protein, salts, sugars, etc.)

Organelles
Metabolic machinery of cell; each with specialized function; either membranous or nonmembranous

Inclusions
Vary with cell type; e.g., glycogen granules, pigments, lipid droplets, vacuoles, crystals

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Cytoplasmic Organelles Membranous

Mitochondria Peroxisomes Lysosomes Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus

Nonmembranous
Cytoskeleton Centrioles Ribosomes

Membranes allow crucial compartmentalization

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Mitochondria Double-membrane structure with inner shelflike cristae Provide most of cell's ATP via aerobic cellular respiration
Requires oxygen

Contain their own DNA, RNA, ribosomes Similar to bacteria; capable of cell division called fission

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Figure 3.17 Mitochondrion.

Outer mitochondrial membrane Ribosome

Mitochondrial DNA Inner mitochondrial membrane Cristae Matrix

Enzymes

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Ribosomes Granules containing protein and rRNA Site of protein synthesis Free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins that function in cytosol or other organelles Membrane-bound ribosomes (forming rough ER) synthesize proteins to be incorporated into membranes, lysosomes, or exported from cell
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Interconnected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing cisterns Continuous with outer nuclear membrane Two varieties:
Rough ER Smooth ER

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Rough ER External surface studded with ribosomes Manufactures all secreted proteins Synthesizes membrane integral proteins and phospholipids Assembled proteins move to ER interior, enclosed in vesicle, go to Golgi apparatus

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Smooth ER Network of tubules continuous with rough ER Its enzymes (integral proteins) function in
Lipid metabolism; cholesterol and steroidbased hormone synthesis; making lipids of lipoproteins Absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats Detoxification of drugs, some pesticides, carcinogenic chemicals Converting glycogen to free glucose Storage and release of calcium
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Figure 3.18 The endoplasmic reticulum.

Nucleus

Smooth ER

Nuclear envelope

Rough ER

Ribosomes Electron micrograph of smooth and rough ER (25,000x)

Diagrammatic view of smooth and rough ER

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Golgi Apparatus Stacked and flattened membranous sacs Modifies, concentrates, and packages proteins and lipids from rough ER Transport vessels from ER fuse with convex cis face; proteins modified, tagged for delivery, sorted, packaged in vesicles

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Golgi Apparatus Three types of vesicles bud from concave trans face
Secretory vesicles (granules)
To trans face; release export proteins by exocytosis

Vesicles of lipids and transmembrane proteins for plasma membrane or organelles Lysosomes containing digestive enzymes; remain in cell

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Figure 3.19a Golgi apparatus.

Transport vesicle from rough ER

Cis face receiving side of Golgi apparatus Cisterns

New vesicles forming Transport vesicle from trans face Trans face shipping side of Golgi apparatus

Secretory vesicle

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Many vesicles in the process of pinching off from the Golgi apparatus.

Figure 3.19b Golgi apparatus.

New vesicles forming

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Transport vesicle at Golgi the trans face apparatus Electron micrograph of the Golgi apparatus (90,000x)

Figure 3.20 The sequence of events from protein synthesis on the rough ER to the final distribution of those proteins.

Slide 1

1 Protein-containing vesicles pinch off rough ER and migrate to fuse with membranes of Golgi apparatus. 2 Proteins are modified within the Golgi compartments. 3 Proteins are then packaged within different vesicle types, depending on their ultimate destination.

Rough ER

ER Phagosome membrane Proteins in cisterns

Plasma membrane Pathway C: Lysosome containing acid hydrolase enzymes

Vesicle becomes lysosome

Golgi apparatus Pathway A: Vesicle contents destined for exocytosis

Secretory vesicle

Secretion by exocytosis

Pathway B: Vesicle membrane to be incorporated into plasma membrane Extracellular fluid

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Peroxisomes Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidases and catalases Detoxify harmful or toxic substances Catalysis and synthesis of fatty acids Neutralize dangerous free radicals (highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons)
Oxidases convert to H2O2 (also toxic) Catalases convert H2O2 to water and oxygen
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Lysosomes
Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases)
"Safe" sites for intracellular digestion

Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins Degrade nonfunctional organelles Metabolic functions, e.g., break down and release glycogen Destroy cells in injured or nonuseful tissue (autolysis) Break down bone to release Ca2+
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Figure 3.21 Electron micrograph of lysosomes (20,000x).

Lysosomes

Light green areas are regions where materials are being digested.
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Endomembrane System Overall function

Produce, degrade, store, and export biological molecules Degrade potentially harmful substances

Includes ER, golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, lysosomes, nuclear and plasma membranes

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Figure 3.22 The endomembrane system.

Nucleus Smooth ER

Nuclear envelope

Rough ER

Secretory vesicle Plasma membrane

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Golgi apparatus Transport vesicle Lysosome

Endomembrane System

PLAY

Animation: Endomembrane System

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Cytoskeleton Elaborate series of rods throughout cytosol; proteins link rods to other cell structures
Three types
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules

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Microfilaments Thinnest of cytoskeletal elements Dynamic strands of protein actin Each cell-unique arrangement of strands Dense web attached to cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane-terminal web
Gives strength, compression resistance

Involved in cell motility, change in shape, endocytosis and exocytosis

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Figure 3.23a Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

Microfilaments
Strands made of spherical protein subunits called actins

Actin subunit 7 nm

Microfilaments form the blue network surrounding the pink nucleus in this photo.
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Intermediate Filaments Tough, insoluble, ropelike protein fibers Composed of tetramer fibrils Resist pulling forces on cell; attach to desmosomes E.g., neurofilaments in nerve cells; keratin filaments in epithelial cells

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Figure 3.23b Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

Intermediate filaments
Tough, insoluble protein fibers constructed like woven ropes composed of tetramer (4) fibrils Tetramer subunits 10 nm

Intermediate filaments form the purple batlike network in this photo.

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Microtubules Largest of cytoskeletal elements; dynamic hollow tubes; most radiate from centrosome Composed of protein subunits called tubulins Determine overall shape of cell and distribution of organelles Mitochondria, lysosomes, secretory vesicles attach to microtubules; moved throughout cell by motor proteins
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Figure 3.23c Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

Microtubules
Hollow tubes of spherical protein subunits called tubulins Tubulin subunits

25 nm

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Microtubules appear as gold networks surrounding the cells pink nuclei in this photo.

Motor Proteins Protein complexes that function in motility (e.g., movement of organelles and contraction) Powered by ATP

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Figure 3.24 Microtubules and microfilaments function in cell motility by interacting with motor molecules powered by ATP.

Vesicle

Receptor for motor molecule Motor molecule (ATP powered)

Microtubule of cytoskeleton Motor molecules can attach to receptors on vesicles or organelles, and carry the organelles along the microtubule tracks of the cytoskeleton.

Motor molecule (ATP powered)

Cytoskeletal elements (microtubules or microfilaments) In some types of cell motility, motor molecules attached to one element of the cytoskeleton can cause it to slide over another element, which the motor molecules grip, release, and grip at a new site. Muscle contraction and cilia movement work this way.

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Centrosome and Centrioles "Cell center" near nucleus Generates microtubules; organizes mitotic spindle Contains paired centrioles
Organelles; small tubes formed by microtubules

Centrioles form basis of cilia and flagella

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Figure 3.25a Centrioles.

Centrosome matrix Centrioles

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Microtubules

Figure 3.25b Centrioles.

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Cellular Extensions Cilia and flagella

Whiplike, motile extensions on surfaces of certain cells Contain microtubules and motor molecules Cilia move substances across cell surfaces Longer flagella propel whole cells (tail of sperm)

PLAY

Animation: Cilia and Flagella

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Cilia and Flagella Centrioles forming base called basal bodies Cilia movements alternate between power stroke and recovery stroke current at cell surface Primary cilia
Single, nonmotile projection on most cells Probe environment for molecules receptors can recognize; coordinate intracellular pathways
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Figure 3.26 Structure of a cilium.

Outer microtubule doublet Dynein arms Central microtubule Cross-linking proteins between outer doublets Radial spoke TEM A cross section through the Microtubules cilium shows the 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules. The doublets also have Attached motor proteins, the dynein arms.

Cross-linking proteins between outer doublets Radial spoke

The outer microtubule doublets and the two central microtubules are held together by cross-linking proteins and radial spokes.

Plasma membrane Basal body

Plasma membrane Triplet

Cilium

TEM A longitudinal section of a cilium shows microtubules running the length of the structure.

TEM A cross section through the basal body. The nine outer doublets of a cilium extend into a basal body where each doublet joins another microtubule to form a ring of nine triplets. Basal body (centriole)

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Figure 3.27 Ciliary function.

Power, or propulsive, stroke

Recovery stroke, when cilium is returning to its initial position

Phases of ciliary motion. Layer of mucus

Cell surface

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Traveling wave created by the activity of many cilia acting together propels mucus across cell surfaces.

Cellular Extensions Microvilli

Minute, fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane Increase surface area for absorption Core of actin filaments for stiffening

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Figure 3.28 Microvilli.

Microvillus

Actin filaments Terminal web

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Nucleus Largest organelle; genetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins Responds to signals; dictates kinds and amounts of proteins synthesized Most cells uninucleate; skeletal muscle cells, bone destruction cells, and some liver cells are multinucleate; red blood cells are anucleate Three regions/structures
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Figure 3.29a The nucleus.

Nuclear envelope Chromatin (condensed) Nucleolus

Nuclear pores Nucleus

Cisterns of rough ER
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The Nuclear Envelope

Double-membrane barrier; encloses nucleoplasm Outer layer continuous with rough ER and bears ribosomes Inner lining (nuclear lamina) maintains shape of nucleus; scaffold to organize DNA Pores allow substances to pass; nuclear pore complex line pores; regulates transport of large molecules into and out of nucleus

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Figure 3.29b The nucleus.

Surface of nuclear envelope.

Fracture line of outer membrane Nuclear pores Nucleus

Nuclear pore complexes. Each pore is ringed by protein particles.

Nuclear lamina. The netlike lamina composed of intermediate filaments formed by lamins lines the inner surface of the nuclear envelope.
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Nucleoli Dark-staining spherical bodies within nucleus Involved in rRNA synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly Associated with nucleolar organizer regions
Contains DNA coding for rRNA

Usually one or two per cell

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Chromatin Threadlike strands of DNA (30%), histone proteins (60%), and RNA (10%) Arranged in fundamental units called nucleosomes Histones pack long DNA molecules; involved in gene regulation Condense into barlike bodies called chromosomes when cell starts to divide

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Figure 3.30 Chromatin and chromosome structure.

1 DNA double helix (2-nm diameter) Histones 2 Chromatin (beads on a string) structure with nucleosomes

Linker DNA Nucleosome (10-nm diameter; eight histone proteins wrapped by two winds of the DNA double helix)

3 Tight helical fiber (30-nm diameter) 4 Looped domain structure (300-nm 5 Chromatid diameter) (700-nm diameter) 6 Metaphase chromosome (at midpoint of cell division) consists of two sister chromatids
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Membrane Transport: Active Processes Two types of active processes

Active transport Vesicular transport

Both require ATP to move solutes across a living plasma membrane because
Solute too large for channels Solute not lipid soluble Solute not able to move down concentration gradient
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Active Transport Requires carrier proteins (solute pumps)

Bind specifically and reversibly with substance

Moves solutes against concentration gradient

Requires energy

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Active Transport: Two Types Primary active transport

Required energy directly from ATP hydrolysis

Secondary active transport

Required energy indirectly from ionic gradients created by primary active transport

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Primary Active Transport Energy from hydrolysis of ATP causes shape change in transport protein that "pumps" solutes (ions) across membrane E.g., calcium, hydrogen, Na+-K+ pumps

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Primary Active Transport Sodium-potassium pump

Most well-studied Carrier (pump) called Na+-K+ ATPase Located in all plasma membranes Involved in primary and secondary active transport of nutrients and ions

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Sodium-Potassium Pump Na+ and K+ channels allow slow leakage down concentration gradients Na+-K+ pump works as antiporter
Pumps against Na+ and K+ gradients to maintain high intracellular K+ concentration and high extracellular Na+ concentration
Maintains electrochemical gradients essential for functions of muscle and nerve tissues Allows all cells to maintain fluid volume

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Figure 3.10 Primary active transport is the process in which solutes are moved across cell membranes against electrochemical gradients using energy supplied directly by ATP.
Extracellular fluid Na+

Slide 1

Na+K+ pump

ATP-binding site Cytoplasm

K+

Na+ bound

1 Three cytoplasmic Na+ bind to pump protein.

K+ released

6 Pump protein binds ATP; releases K+ to the inside, and Na+ sites are ready to bind Na+ again. The cycle repeats.

2 Na+ binding promotes hydrolysis of ATP. The energy released during this reaction phosphorylates the pump.

Na+ released K+ bound

P Pi K+

5 K+ binding triggers release of the phosphate. The dephosphorylated pump resumes its original conformation. P

3 Phosphorylation causes the pump to change shape, expelling Na+ to the outside.

4 Two extracellular K+ bind to pump.

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Secondary Active Transport Depends on ion gradient created by primary active transport Energy stored in ionic gradients used indirectly to drive transport of other solutes

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Secondary Active Transport Cotransportalways transports more than one substance at a time
Symport system: Substances transported in same direction Antiport system: Substances transported in opposite directions

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Figure 3.11 Secondary active transport is driven by the concentration gradient created by primary active transport.

Slide 1

Extracellular fluid Na+-glucose symport transporter loads glucose from extracellular fluid

Glucose Na+-glucose symport transporter releases glucose into the cytoplasm

Na+-K+ pump

Cytoplasm 1 Primary active transport The ATP-driven Na+-K+ pump stores energy by creating a steep concentration gradient for Na+ entry into the cell. 2 Secondary active transport As Na+ diffuses back across the membrane through a membrane cotransporter protein, it drives glucose against its concentration gradient into the cell.

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Vesicular Transport Transport of large particles, macromolecules, and fluids across membrane in membranous sacs called vesicles Requires cellular energy (e.g., ATP)

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Vesicular Transport Functions:

Exocytosistransport out of cell Endocytosistransport into cell
Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis

Transcytosistransport into, across, and then out of cell Vesicular traffickingtransport from one area or organelle in cell to another

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Endocytosis and Transcytosis Involve formation of protein-coated vesicles Often receptor mediated, therefore very selective Some pathogens also hijack for transport into cell Once vesicle is inside cell it may
Fuse with lysosome Undergo transcytosis
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Figure 3.12 Events of endocytosis mediated by protein-coated pits.

1 Coated pit ingests substance. Protein coat (typically clathrin) 2 Protein-coated vesicle detaches.

Slide 1

Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Cytoplasm

3 Coat proteins are recycled to plasma membrane. Transport vesicle

Uncoated endocytic vesicle 4 Uncoated vesicle fuses with a sorting vesicle called an endosome. Lysosome

Endosome 5 Transport vesicle containing membrane compone -nts moves to the plasma membrane for recycling.

6 Fused vesicle may (a) fuse with lysosome for digestion of its contents, or (b) deliver its contents to the plasma membrane on the opposite side of the cell (transcytosis).
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Endocytosis Phagocytosis
Pseudopods engulf solids and bring them into cell's interior Form vesicle called phagosome

Used by macrophages and some white blood cells

Move by amoeboid motion
Cytoplasm flows into temporary extensions Allows creeping

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Figure 3.13a Comparison of three types of endocytosis.

Receptors Phagosome

Phagocytosis The cell engulfs a large particle by forming projecting pseudopods ("false feet") around it and enclosing it within a membrane sac called a phagosome. The phagosome is combined with a lysosome. Undigested contents remain in the vesicle (now called a residual body) or are ejected by exocytosis. Vesicle may or may not be protein coated but has receptors capable of binding to microorganisms or solid particles.

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Endocytosis Pinocytosis (fluid-phase endocytosis)

Plasma membrane infolds, bringing extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes inside cell
Fuses with endosome

Most cells utilize to "sample" environment Nutrient absorption in the small intestine Membrane components recycled back to membrane

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Figure 3.13b Comparison of three types of endocytosis.

Pinocytosis The cell "gulps" a drop of extracellular fluid containing solutes into tiny vesicles. No receptors are used, so the process is nonspecific. Most vesicles are protein-coated.

Vesicle

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Endocytosis Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Allows specific endocytosis and transcytosis
Cells use to concentrate materials in limited supply

Clathrin-coated pits provide main route for endocytosis and transcytosis

Uptake of enzymes, low-density lipoproteins, iron, insulin, and, unfortunately, viruses, diphtheria, and cholera toxins

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Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis Different coat proteins

Caveolae
Capture specific molecules (folic acid, tetanus toxin) and use transcytosis Involved in cell signaling but exact function unknown

Coatomer
Function in vesicular trafficking

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Figure 3.13c Comparison of three types of endocytosis.

Vesicle

Receptor-mediated endocytosis Extracellular substances bind to specific receptor proteins, enabling the cell to ingest and concentrate specific substances (ligands) in protein-coated vesicles. Ligands may simply be released inside the cell, or combined with a lysosome to digest contents. Receptors are recycled to the plasma membrane in vesicles.

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Exocytosis Usually activated by cell-surface signal or change in membrane voltage Substance enclosed in secretory vesicle v-SNAREs ("v" = vesicle) on vesicle find t-SNAREs ("t" = target) on membrane and bind Functions
Hormone secretion, neurotransmitter release, mucus secretion, ejection of wastes
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Figure 3.14 Exocytosis.

Slide 1

The process of exocytosis Plasma membrane Extracellular SNARE (t-SNARE) fluid Secretory vesicle Fusion pore formed 3 The vesicle and plasma membrane fuse and a pore opens up.

Vesicle SNARE (v-SNARE) Molecule to be secreted Cytoplasm

1 The membranebound vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane.

Fused v- and t-SNAREs

2 There, proteins at the vesicle surface (vSNAREs) bind with tSNAREs (plasma membrane proteins).

4 Vesicle contents are released to the cell exterior.

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Figure 3.14b Exocytosis.

Photomicrograph of a secretory vesicle releasing its contents by exocytosis (100,000x)

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Table 3.2 Active Membrane Transport Processes (1 of 2)

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Table 3.2 Active Membrane Transport Processes (2 of 2)

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