Databases and Database Management Systems
Based on Chapters 1-2 in Fundamentals of Database Systems by Elmasri and Navathe, Ed. 4
NOTES
1 2 3 Basic Definitions Example of a Database Main Characteristics of Database Technology Additional Benefits of Database Technology When Not to Use a DBMS Data Models 6A. History of data Models 7 8 Schemas versus Instances Three-Schema Architecture Data Independence DBMS Languages DBMS Interfaces DBMS Component Modules 13 Database System Utilities Classification of DBMSs
4
5 6
9 10 11 12
14
Introduction to Database Systems
Types of Databases and Database Applications
Numeric and Textual Databases Multimedia Databases(store images, audio clips, and video streams digitally). Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (store and analyze maps, weather data and satellite images) Data Warehouses and Online analytical processing (OLAP) Real-time and Active Databases (control industrial and manufacturing process)
Introduction to Database Systems 3
Database Management System (DBMS)
Collection of interrelated data Set of programs to access the data DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise DBMS provides an environment that is both convenient and efficient to use.
Introduction to Database Systems
Database Management System (DBMS)
Database Applications:
Banking: all transactions Airlines: reservations, schedules Universities: registration, grades Sales: customers, products, purchases Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
Databases touch all aspects of our lives
Purpose of Database System
In the early days, database applications were built on top of file systems Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
Data redundancy and inconsistency Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files Difficulty in accessing data Need to write a new program to carry out each new task Data isolation multiple files and formats Integrity problems Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become part of program code Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)
Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)
Atomicity of updates Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out E.g. transfer of funds from one account to another should either complete or not happen at all Concurrent access by multiple users Concurrent accessed needed for performance Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies E.g. two people reading a balance and updating it at the same time Security problems
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
1.Basic Definitions
Database :
A collection of related data.
Data :
Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning.
Introduction to Database Systems
Basic Definitions
Mini-world:
Some part of the real world about which data is stored in a database. For example, student grades and transcripts at a university.
Introduction to Database Systems
Basic Definitions
Database Management System (DBMS) :
A software package/ system to facilitate the creation and maintenance of a computerized database.
Introduction to Database Systems
10
Basic Definitions
Database System :
The DBMS software together with the data itself. Sometimes, the applications are also included.
Database System = Data + DBMS + (Program)
Introduction to Database Systems
11
A simplified database system environment.
Introduction to Database Systems
12
Typical DBMS Functionality (1/2)
Define a database :
in terms of data types, structures and constraints
Construct or Load the Database on a secondary storage medium Manipulating the database :
querying, generating reports, insertions, deletions and modifications to its content
Concurrent Processing and Sharing by a set of users and programs yet, keeping all data valid and consistent
Introduction to Database Systems
13
Typical DBMS Functionality (2/2)
Other features:
Protection or Security measures to prevent unauthorized access Active processing to take internal actions on data Presentation and Visualization of data
Introduction to Database Systems
14
2. Example of a Database (with a Conceptual Data Model)
Mini-world for the example:
Part of a UNIVERSITY environment.
Entities Relationships
Introduction to Database Systems
15
2. Example of a Database (with a Conceptual Data Model)
Some mini-world entities:
STUDENTs COURSEs SECTIONs (of COURSEs) (academic) DEPARTMENTs INSTRUCTORs
Introduction to Database Systems
16
University database
Introduction to Database Systems
17
2. Example of a Database (with a Conceptual Data Model)
Some mini-world relationships:
SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs STUDENTs take SECTIONs COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs COURSEs are offered by DEPARTMENTs STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs
Introduction to Database Systems
18
NOTE:
The above could be expressed in the ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP data model.
Introduction to Database Systems
19
3. Main Characteristics of Database Technology
1) Self-contained nature of a database system
2) Insulation between programs and data
3) Data Abstraction 4) Support of multiple views of the data
5) Sharing of data and multiuser transaction
processing
Introduction to Database Systems
20
Self-contained nature of a database system
A DBMS catalog stores the description of the database. The description is called meta-data. This allows the DBMS software to work with different databases.
Introduction to Database Systems
21
Insulation between programs and data
Called program-data independence. Allows changing data storage structures and operations without having to change the DBMS access programs.
Introduction to Database Systems
22
Data Abstraction
A data model is used to hide storage details and present the users with a conceptual view of the database.
Introduction to Database Systems
23
Support of multiple views of the data
Each user may see a different view of the database, which describes only the data of interest to that user.
Introduction to Database Systems
24
The STUDENT TRANSCRIPT view.
Introduction to Database Systems
25
Internal storage format for a STUDENT record
Introduction to Database Systems
26
Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing
allowing a set of concurrent users to retrieve and to update the database. Concurrency control within the DBMS guarantees that each transaction is correctly executed or completely aborted. OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is a major part of database applications.
Introduction to Database Systems
27
4. Additional Benefits of Database Technology
Controlling redundancy in data storage and in development and maintenance efforts. Sharing of data among multiple users. Restricting unauthorized access to data. Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of users. Representing complex relationships among data. Enforcing integrity constraints on the database. Providing backup and recovery services. Potential for enforcing standards. Flexibility to change data structures. Reduced application development time. Availability of up-to-date information. Economies of scale.
Introduction to Database Systems 28
Redundant storage of StudentName and CourseNumber in GRADE_REPORT.
(a) Consistent data.
(b) Inconsistent record.
Introduction to Database Systems
29
Actors on the scene
1.
Person involve day to day use of a database. To define, construct and manipulates the DB. Called as Actors on the scene. DBA (Database Administrator )
Many people use the same resources. Chief administrator to overseer's and manages these resources. Primary resource is DB Secondary resource is DBMS and related s/w.
Introduction to Database Systems 30
DBA is responsible to administrate these resources. Responsible for authorizing access to DB, coordinating, monitoring its uses , acquiring s/w and h/w resources.
Introduction to Database Systems
31
Database Designer
Identifying the data to be stored in DB. Choosing appropriate structure to represent and store this data. Communicate with DB user to understand their request and create a design that meets these requirement.
Introduction to Database Systems
32
End User
1.
Access DB for querying, updating and generating reports. Casual end user
Occasionally access DB Use sophisticated DB query language. Middle or high level mangers or other occasional browser.
Introduction to Database Systems
33
Naive or parametric end user
Constantly querying and updating DB. Using standard types of queries and updates called canned transaction
Sophisticated end user
Engineers Scientists Business analysts Use DB to implement their applications to meet their computer requirements
Introduction to Database Systems 34
Standalone user
Personal DB by using ready made program package. Menu based or graphic base interface.
Introduction to Database Systems
35
System analysts and application programmers (s/w engineers)
System analysts
Determine the requirements of end users especially nave and parametric end user Develop specification for canned transcation. Implement specification as program. Test, debug, document and maintain these canned transcation.
Introduction to Database Systems 36
Application programmer
Worker Behind the Scene
Work to maintain the DB system environment but not actively interested in DB itself. DBMS system designer and implementers
Design and implement the DBMS modules and interface as s/w packages.
Introduction to Database Systems
37
Tool developers
Design and implements tool. s/w packages that facilitate DB modeling and design. Improves performance.
Responsible for actual running and maintenance of the H/W and S/W environments for DB system.
Operators and maintenance personnel
Introduction to Database Systems
38
Historical Development of Database Technology
Early Database Applications:
The Hierarchical and Network Models were introduced in mid 1960s and dominated during the seventies. A bulk of the worldwide database processing still occurs using these models.
Introduction to Database Systems
39
Historical Development of Database Technology
Relational Model based Systems:
The model that was originally introduced in 1970 was heavily researched and experimented with in IBM and the universities. Relational DBMS Products emerged in the 1980s.
Introduction to Database Systems
40
Historical Development of Database Technology
Object-oriented applications:
OODBMSs were introduced in late 1980s and early 1990s to cater to the need of complex data processing in CAD and other applications. Their use has not taken off much.
Introduction to Database Systems
41
Historical Development of Database Technology
Data on the Web and E-commerce Applications:
Web contains data in HTML (Hypertext markup language) with links among pages. This has given rise to a new set of applications and E-commerce is using new standards like XML (eXtended Markup Language).
Introduction to Database Systems
42
Extending Database capabilities
New functionality is being added to DBMSs in the following areas:
Scientific Applications Image Storage and Management Audio and Video data management Data Mining Spatial data management Time Series and Historical Data Management
Introduction to Database Systems
43
5 When not to use a DBMS
Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS When a DBMS may be unnecessary When no DBMS may suffice
Introduction to Database Systems
44
Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:
High initial investment and possible need for additional hardware. Overhead for providing generality, security, recovery, integrity, and concurrency control.
Introduction to Database Systems
45
When a DBMS may be unnecessary:
If the database and applications are simple, well defined, and not expected to change. If there are stringent real-time requirements that may not be met because of DBMS overhead. If access to data by multiple users is not required.
Introduction to Database Systems
46
When no DBMS may suffice:
If the database system is not able to handle the complexity of data because of modeling limitations If the database users need special operations not supported by the DBMS.
Introduction to Database Systems
47
6. Data Models
Data Model:
A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database, and certain constraints that the database should obey.
Introduction to Database Systems
48
6. Data Models
Data Model Operations:
Operations for specifying database retrievals and updates by referring to the concepts of the data model. Operations on the data model may include basic operations and user-defined operations
Introduction to Database Systems
49
Categories of data models:
Conceptual data models
(high-level, semantic)
(low-level, internal)
Physical data models
Logical (representational, Implementation) data models
(record-oriented)
Introduction to Database Systems
50
Conceptual data models
Provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data. Also called entity-based or object-based data models. Use concepts such as entities, attributes and relationship.
Introduction to Database Systems
51
Physical data models:
Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored in the computer.
storage structure
Define record formats, record orderings and access path. Structure that makes the search for particular database records efficient.
Access path
Introduction to Database Systems
52
Implementation data models:
Also called logical data model Provide concepts that fall between the above two, balancing user views with some computer storage details.
Introduction to Database Systems
53
6A. HISTORY OF DATA MODELS
Relational Model Network Model Hierarchical Data Model Object-oriented Data Model(s Object-Relational Models
Introduction to Database Systems
54
Relational Model:
proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM), first commercial system in 1981-82. Now in several commercial products
DB2, ORACLE, SQL Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX.
Introduction to Database Systems
55
Object-Relational Models :
Most Recent Trend. Started with Informix Universal Server. Exemplified in the latest versions of Oracle10g, DB2, and SQL Server etc. systems.
Introduction to Database Systems
56
7. Schemas versus Instances
Database Schema :
The description of a database. Includes
descriptions of the database structure and the constraints that should hold on the database.
Schema Diagram:
A diagrammatic display of (some aspects of) a database schema.
Introduction to Database Systems 57
Schema diagram for University database
Introduction to Database Systems
58
7. Schemas versus Instances
Database Instance :
The actual data stored in a database at a particular moment in time . Also called database state (or occurrence or snapshot or instances).
Introduction to Database Systems
59
7. Schemas versus Instances
Database State:
Refers to the content of a database at a moment in time.
Refers to the database when it is loaded A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of the database.
Initial Database State:
Valid State:
Introduction to Database Systems
60
7. Schemas versus Instances
Distinction
The database schema changes very infrequently. The database state changes every time the database is updated. Schema is also called intension, whereas state is called extension.
Introduction to Database Systems
61
8. Three-Schema Architecture
Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
Program-data independence. Support of multiple views of the data. Use of catalog to store the database description (schema).
Introduction to Database Systems
62
8. Three-Schema Architecture
Defines DBMS schemas at three levels :
Internal schema Conceptual schema External schemas
Introduction to Database Systems
63
The three-schema architecture.
Introduction to Database Systems
64
Internal schema
Internal schema at the internal level to describe data storage structures and access paths. Typically uses a physical data model.
Introduction to Database Systems
65
Conceptual schema
Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the structure and constraints for the whole database. Hide the details of physical structure and concentrates on describing entities, data types, relationships, user operations and constraints. Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
Introduction to Database Systems 66
External schemas
External schemas at the external level to describe the various user views. Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual level.
Introduction to Database Systems
67
Three-Schema Architecture
Mappings among schema levels are also needed. Programs refer to an external schema, and are mapped by the DBMS to the internal schema for execution.
Introduction to Database Systems
68
9 Data Independence
Logical Data Independence
The capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to change the external schemas and their application programs.
Physical Data Independence
The capacity to change the internal schema without having to change the conceptual schema.
Introduction to Database Systems
69
Data Independence
When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the mappings between this schema and higher-level schemas need to be changed in a DBMS that fully supports data independence. The higher-level schemas themselves are unchanged. Hence, the application programs need not be changed since the refer to the external schemas.
Introduction to Database Systems 70
10. DBMS Languages
Data Definition Language (DDL) Data Manipulation Language (DML) Data Control Language (DCL)
Introduction to Database Systems
71
Data Definition Language (DDL):
Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the conceptual schema of a database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal and external schemas (views). In some DBMSs, separate storage definition language (SDL) and view definition language (VDL) are used to define internal and external schemas.
Introduction to Database Systems 72
Data Manipulation Language
(DML):
Used to specify database retrievals and updates.
DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a general-purpose programming language (host language), such as C, COBOL, PL/1 or PASCAL. Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied directly (query language).
Introduction to Database Systems
73
DBMS Languages
High Level or Non-procedural Languages:
e.g., SQL, are set-oriented and specify what data to retrieve than how to retrieve. Also called declarative languages.
Low Level or Procedural Languages:
record-at-a-time; they specify how to retrieve data and include constructs such as looping.
Introduction to Database Systems
74
11. DBMS Interfaces
Menu-based interfaces for web clients or browsing Forms-based interfaces Graphical user interfaces Natural language interfaces Speech input and output Interfaces for parametric users
Introduction to Database Systems
75
DBMS Interfaces
Interfaces for the DBA:
Creating accounts, granting authorizations Setting system parameters Changing schemas or access path
Introduction to Database Systems
76
Component modules of a DBMS and their interactions.
Introduction to Database Systems
77
13. Database System Utilities
To perform certain functions such as:
Loading data stored in files into a database. Backing up the database periodically on tape. Reorganizing database file structures. Report generation utilities. Performance monitoring utilities. Other functions, such as sorting , user monitoring , data compression , etc.
Introduction to Database Systems
78
Data dictionary / repository:
Used to store schema descriptions and other information such as design decisions, application program descriptions, user information, usage standards, etc.
Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS software and users/DBA. Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA only.
Introduction to Database Systems
79
14. Classification of DBMSs
Based on data model Other classifications
Introduction to Database Systems
80
Based on the data model used:
Traditional:
Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
Object-oriented, Object-relational.
Emerging:
Introduction to Database Systems
81
Other classifications:
Single-user (typically used with micro- computers) vs. multi-user (most DBMSs). Centralized (uses a single computer with one database) vs. distributed (uses multiple computers, multiple databases)
Distributed Database Systems have now come to be known as client server based database systems because they do not support a totally distributed environment, but rather a set of database servers supporting a set of clients.
Introduction to Database Systems
82
Example of a Database
(with a Logical Data Model)
Introduction to Database Systems
83
