Statistics: A Gentle Introduction

By Frederick L. Coolidge, Ph.D.

Sage Publications

Chapter 2 Descriptive Statistics: Understanding Distributions of Numbers

Chapter 2 1

0730 Q1 Results N=20

1|5 2|1124456679 3|001124779

Chapter 2

0900 Q1 Results N=32

1|249 2|0335567799 3|2224444445566889 4|001

Chapter 2

Overview

Graphs and tables

Whats the point? The nasty tricks of the trade

Types of distributions Grouping data Cumulative frequency distributions Stem-and-leaf plot

4

Chapter 2

Graphs and Tables

Whats the point?

Whats the point?

Document the sources of statistical data and its characteristics.

Where did you get it? What is it measuring?

Chapter 2

Graphs and Tables

Whats the point?

Make appropriate comparisons.

Compare similar data. Make the point more clearly. Make data more understandable. Eliminate doubt.

Chapter 2

Frequency Distributions

A table reporting the number of observations falling into each category of the variable; Frequency count for data value is # of times value occurs in data set; Ungrouped frequency distribution lists the data values w/frequency count with which each value occurs; Relative frequency for any class is obtained by dividing frequency for that class by total # of

Cumulative Frequency(CF) and Cumulative Relative Freq(CRF)

CF- a specific value in a frequency table is sum of frequencies for all values at or below the given value; CRF- the sum of the relative frequencies for all values at or below the given value expressed as a proportion; Grouped Frequency distribution is obtained by constructing intervals for data and listing frequency count in each interval

MathAnxiety Relative Cumulative Cumulative Scores Freq Freq Freq Relative Freq

1
2

1
2

0.05
0.09

1
3

0.05
0.14

3
4 5 6 7 8 9

3
4 5 0 2 3 1

0.14
0.18 0.23 0 0.09 0.14 0.05

6
10 15 15 17 20 21

0.28
0.46 0.69 0.69 0.78 0.92 0.97

10

0.05

22

1.02

MathAnxietyScore7:30class(Grouped Freq Distribution

Class Intervals .5-2.5 2.5-4.5 4.5-6.5 6.5-8.5 8.5-10.5 F 3 7 5 5 2 CF 3 10 15 20 22 RF CRF 0.136 0.1364 0.318 0.4546 0.227 0.6819 0.227 0.9092 0.091 1.0002

Histogram Math Anxiety Scores

.30 .25 .20 .15
.10 .5
.5 2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5

Chapter 2

11

opportunities
What Govts Role in improving economic position of minorities Major Role Minor Role No Role

Blacks More Pessimistic than whites economic

NonHispanic Whites(%) Blacks(%) Hispanics

32 51 16

68 22 9

67 21 8

Laws Covering Sales of Firearms: Increase Restrictions( 2000)?

More Men(N=493) Women(N=538) Less Same No opinion

256 387

39 11

193 129

5 11

Men and Firearm Restrictions: Frequency Distribution(N=493)

F More Less Same No opinion CF RF CRF

256 39 193 5

256 295 488 493

.52 .08 .39 .01

.52 .60 .99 1

Women and Firearm Restrictions: Frequency Distribution(N=538)

F More Less Same 387 11 129 CF 387 398 527 RF .719 .020 .239 CRF .719 .739 .978

No opinion

11

538

.020

.998

Graphs and Tables

Whats the point?

Demonstrate the mechanisms of cause and effect and express the mechanisms quantitatively.

If you vary the cause and the results change in a predictable and uniform manner, then you make a stronger case for cause and effect.

Chapter 2

16

Graphs and Tables

Whats the point?

Recognize the inherent multivariate (more than one cause) nature of the problem.

Is there anything with just one cause?

Temperature of boiling water: Altitude of water What is in the water (salt)?

Chapter 2

17

Graphs and Tables

Whats the point?

Inspect and evaluate alternative hypotheses.

Cigarette smoking is related to a lower incidence of Alzheimers disease.

Is it the cigarettes? Is it the dying at an earlier age, before Alzheimers is diagnosable?

Chapter 2

18

Graphs and Tables

The nasty tricks of the trade

The nasty tricks of the trade

Adjust the scale to make the point Show only part of the scale Omit the units of measure Change the scale along the graph Include too much junk Not enough to bother graphing
19

Chapter 2

Graphs and Tables

The nasty tricks of the trade

Is Brand One really any better than the others?

Chapter 2

20

Stem-and-leaf plot

Presents the frequency of data points without losing important information.

Data set: 25, 27, 29

Stem 2 579 Leaves

Chapter 2

21

Stem-and-leaf plot

The first digit is the stem The second digit is each leaf

25

27

29

Stem 2 579 Leaves

Chapter 2 22

Stem-and-leaf plot

The first digit is the stem The second digit is each leaf

25

27

29

Stem 2 579 Leaves

Chapter 2 23

Stem-and-leaf plot
Lets try it Data set: 30, 32, 32, 34, 37, 37, 39 Data set: 5, 9, 10, 11, 11, 23, 25, 27

Chapter 2

24

Types of Distributions
Frequency Distribution

Frequency distribution

Showing what you have

A way to illustrate how many of each thing.

Chapter 2

25

Types of Distributions
Frequency Distribution

Chapter 2

26

Types of Distributions
Normal Distribution

Normal distribution

Also known as the bell-shaped curve An illustration of the expectation of what most types of data will look like

A few data points at each extreme Most data points in the middle area

Chapter 2

27

Types of Distributions
Normal Distribution

Chapter 2

28

Types of Distributions
Positively Skewed Distribution

Not all data are created equal

Positive skew

Many data points near the origin of the graph

Chapter 2

29

Types of Distributions
Negatively Skewed Distribution

Negative skew

Many data points away from the origin of the graph

Chapter 2

30

Types of Distributions
Bimodal Distribution

Bimodal

Two areas under the curve with many data points

Chapter 2

31

Types of Distributions
Non-normal Distributions

Nonnormal distributions

But not abnormal

Platykurtic: flat like a plate

Chapter 2

32

Bi-Modal Distribution: Spring 2010 Quiz Scores

F 10-16 17-23 24-30 5 3 2 CF 5 8 10 RF .227 .136 .090 CRF .227 .363 .453

31-37
38-44

8
4

18
22

.363
.181

.816
.997

Types of Distributions
Non-normal Distributions

Leptokurtic: up & down (like leaping)

Bimodal: lumpy

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34

Grouping data

A way of organizing data so that they are manageable.

Which is easier to understand? 3, 1, 7, 4, 1, 2, 3, 5, 4, 9 or 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 7, 9

Chapter 2 35

Grouping data
Tips for grouping data

Tips for grouping lots of data

Choose interval widths that reduce your data to 5 to 10 intervals.

10

15

20

25

30

35

Chapter 2

36

Grouping data
Tips for grouping data

Choose meaningful intervals.

Which is easier to understand at a glance?

10

15

20

25

30

35

or

4
Chapter 2

10

13

16

19

22
37

Grouping data
Tips for grouping data

Interval widths must be the same.

10

15

20

25

30

35

NOT

5
Chapter 2

10

20

22

30

33

35
38

Grouping data
Tips for grouping data

Intervals cannot overlap.

5-10

11-15

16-20

21-25

26-30

31-35

36-40

NOT

5-10
Chapter 2

10-15

14-20

20-26

25-30

30-35

35
39

Grouping data
An example

The data are displayed using

A frequency table of individual data points A frequency table by intervals Graph of data by intervals

Chapter 2

40

Grouping data
An example

Chapter 2

41

Grouping data
An example

Chapter 2

42

Grouping data
An example

Chapter 2

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Freq Distribution Using Stated limits

Age Category Freq CF

20-29 30-39
40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 Total

7 7
12 3 3 6 2 40

7 14
26 29 32 38 40

Chapter 2

44

Problem w/ Stated Limits

Gap of one between adjacent intervals Problem for scores with fractional values; where classify a woman 49.25 years old? Here age would actually fall between intervals 40-49 and 50-59!! Real limits extend upper and lower limits by .5
45

Chapter 2

Freq Distribution Using Real Upper and Lower limits

Age Category Freq CF

19.5-29.5 29.5-39.5
39.5-49.5 49.5-59.5 59.5-69.5 69.5-79.5 79.5-89.5 Total

7 7
12 3 3 6 2 40

7 14
26 29 32 38 40

Chapter 2

46

Upper/Lower limits &Fractional Values

Scores falling exactly at upper real limit or lower real limit are rounded to closest even number; EX=59.5 rounded to 60 and included in interval 59.5-69.5 Where would you classify respondent 49.25 years? How about 59.4?

Chapter 2

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Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Cumulative frequency distribution

Shows how many cases (data points) have been accounted for out of the total number of cases (data points).

Chapter 2

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Cumulative Frequency Distribution

How many data points have accounted for as each group is displayed.

Chapter 2

49

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Cumulative frequencies can also be illustrated using percentages.

Chapter 2

50

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Cumulative distributions can help give a reference point for an individual score.

Percentile

What percentage scored above or below the score of interest Divides the scores into four groups

Quartile

25%: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th

Chapter 2

51

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Chapter 2

52

Statistics: A Gentle Introduction

By Frederick L. Coolidge, Ph.D.
Sage Publications

Chapter 2 Descriptive Statistics: Understanding Distributions of Numbers

Chapter 2 53