Brief about company

NPCIL a government-owned corporation of India based in Mumbai. One of the public sector undertakings, it is wholly owned by the Union Government and is for the generation of nuclear power for electricity. NPCIL is administered by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE). NPCIL was created in September 1987 as public limited company. The company has 21 nuclear reactors in operation at seven locations, a total installed capacity of 5780 Mwe. India's first research nuclear reactor with assistance from Canada. The 40 MW CIRUS achieved first criticality in 1960. The agreement for India's first nuclear power plant at Rajasthan, RAPP-1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP-2 in 1966.. The 200 MW RAPP-1 reactor was based on the CANDU reactor at Douglas Point and began operation in 1972.

PRINCIPLE OF NPCIL
FISSION REACTION
Fission is the splitting of a nucleus into two or more separate nuclei of comparable mass One neutron interacts with one fissionable nucleus (Uranium for example) Results are: Fission Products Two heavy nuclides One heavier than the other (Average ratio of ~ 2 : 3 ) It is based on the EINSTEIN EQUATION:

E=MC^2
One fission reaction can lead to more fission reactions in a process called a chain reaction.

CHAIN REACTION OF URANIUM -235

FUSION REACTION
The combining of atomic nuclei to form a larger atom is called fusion. Nuclear fusion occurs in the sun where hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium 4 H + 2 0 e- He + energy Fusion reactions also release very large amount of energy but require extremely high temperatures to start.

COMPLETE LAYOUT OF NPCIL

Can the atomic reactor explode like an atom bomb? Atomic bomb uses 100% U235 or Pu239, whereas in the reactors either it is natural uranium or enriched uranium of 1.5% to 4.5% enrichment. The effort in the bomb is to generate maximum energy in the smallest possible time there by resulting in the explosion, whereas in the reactor the effort is to generate rated power on a continuing basis. So, various controls are put to ensure that the power generated is within its capacity at all the times. Thus, design of Nuclear reactor does not permit such explosions.

CONTROL&INSTRUMENTATION
The term control and instrumentation is used as collective term to encompass all instruments, equipment, systems and special features intended to monitor, control and promise protection for the nuclear power plant. These are broadly categorized as follows:
INFORMATION SYSTEM

CONTROLSYSTEM
PROTECTION SYSTEM

INFORMATION SYSTEM

Monitoring of plant parameters Display and annunciate the status of plant parameter at all states of the plant. Storage of selected data for review and analysis

CONTROL SYSTEM

Maintains plant parameters with specified limits of operational states or initiate change in plant parameters in order to return to parameter within specified limits.

PROTECTION SYSTEM

Detects departure from acceptable plant conditions and issues command to maintain the plant within safety limits. This system over rides information and control systems fail to maintain plant parameters within acceptable values.

Main parts of control room

PLC

DCS

PLC(programmable Logic Controller)

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a special purpose computer aimed at implementing control solutions. Historically PLCs have been used mainly for on-off or logic type applications. Modern PLCs have become increasingly sophisticated and can now cover quite complex control tasks. A PLC is simply an industrial computer designed to be durable enough to withstand the rigors of industrial applications It is common in the mining industry to have PLCs on large mobile equipment to monitor and control everything from lights to large electrical drives. Ladder Logic The programming methods can be with Logic Ladder Diagram, mnemonic (statement list), and / or function block diagram. The method is practical and easy to understand. The programmer in charge of writing a program should describe an electronic switch circuit. It can be designed to perform the conversion of electronic circuits that already exist, and then replace the switch function according to the functions available to software programmers.

Programming a PLC
Every PLC has associated programming software that allows the user to enter a program into the PLC. Software used today is Windows based, and can be run on any PC. Different products may require different software: PLC5, SLC, and Control Logix each require their own programming software.

Example of PLC programming software

Ladder Logic Instructions

few more ladder logic instructions: OTL - Output Latch - turns on the output and keeps it even if the rung goes false OTU - Output Unlatch - turns off the output when the rung is true . Timer On Delay - when the rung is true the timer will run. It will store the elapsed time in the Accum field (accumulator). As long as the rung remains true it will count until it reaches the preset value. If the preset value is hit the DN bit will go on (Done bit). When the rung goes false the timer will be reset.

Programming a PLC Conveyor example

When a box is placed on the conveyor in front of Photoeye 1, Light 1,and Motor 1 will turn on, causing the box to move down the conveyor to the left. When the box passes in front of Photoeye 2, Motor 1 and Light 1 will turn off, stopping the conveyor.

Heres the program for the conveyor: The first line of code turns on the motor and the light when a box is detected by photoeye1. Likewise, the motor and light are turned off when photoeye2 detects the box in the second line of code

The third line begins a timer when the box passes by photoeye1, and if the box does not pass by photoeye2 in 30 seconds (the timer counts in milliseconds), the motor and light are shut off by line 4. This is the indication of a jam condition

Network Interface
Most PLCs have the ability to communicate with other devices. These devices include computers running programming software, or collecting data about the manufacturing process, a terminal that lets an operator enter commands into the PLC, or I/O that is located in a remote location from the PLC. The PLC will communicate to the other devices through a network interface.

PLC Control Panel

INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation is defined as "the art and science of measurement and control". Instrumentation also can refer to the available methods of measurement and control. It include four type of measurements:

Temperature sensor Flow measurement

Pressure measurements

Level measurement

1. TEMPERATURE SENSORS:
There are 3 types of temperature sensors: Thermistor RTD(resistance temperature detector) Thermocouple

THERMISTOR
Thermistors measure the change in resistance with temperature. Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more than RTDs and 1000 times more than thermocouples) and can detect very small changes in temperature. They are also very fast. Due to their speed, they are used for precision temperature control and any time very small temperature differences must be detected. They are made of ceramic semiconductor material (metal oxides). The change in thermistor resistance with temperature is very non-linear.

APPLICATION OF THERMISTOR
PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as fuses. Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive heating NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the order of 10 K. NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits. THERMISTOR NONLINEARITY

Standard thermistors curves are not provided as much as with thermocouples or RTDs. We need a curve for a specific batch of thermistors. Thermistors do not do well at high temperatures and show instability with time (but for the best ones, this instability is only a few millikelvin per year)

THERMOCOUPLE:
It is based on principle of SEE BACK EFFECT

If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one end is heated, current will flow. If the circuit is broken, there will be an open circuit voltage across the wires. Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types. For small Ts, the relationship with temperature is linear

V T

For larger Ts, non-linearities may occur.

RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors)

Resistivity of metals is a function of temperature. Platinum often used since it can be used for a wide temperature range and has excellent stability. Nickel or nickel alloys are used as well, but they arent as accurate. These RTDs are very small but arent as stable (and hence accurate). RTDs are more accurate but also larger and more expensive than thermocouples.
RTD GEOMETRY

Working principlewhen the temperature of the metal changes, their resistance also changes and the change in resistance is alpha to the change in temperature .this relationship is given by:Rt=Ro(1+at+b+.) Where ,Rt= resistance at temperature to t = changes in temperature Ro=resistance at 0 degree a,b,c=constants and depends upon alpha and =maximum non-linearity of changes in resistance from the straight line. a=(1+) b =-() if is zero then Rt is given by Rt=Ro(1+t)

RTD material and their rangesRTD material range resistivity (Micro/cm) Pt 250c to 900c Ni -150c to 300c Cu -200c to 120c Pt-200 is used Pt is best metal for RTD s because it follows a very linear resistance temperature relationship and it follows the R vs T relationship in highly repeatable manner over a wide range of temperature range and used because of chemical inertness.

9.83 6.38 1.56

NEW RESEARCH FOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Tim(sec)

Temperature Sensor Installation and Laboratory Response Time Data for a Slow and Fast RTD

2.Pressure measurement
Pressure is the force exerted per unit area. . The pressure P of a force F distributed over an area A is defined as

P = F/A.
The units of measurement are either in pounds per square inch (PSI) in British units or Pascals (Pa) in metric. As one PSI is approximately 7000Pa, we often use kPa and MPa as units of pressure.
GAUGE COMPOUND ABSOLUTE

BAROMETRIC RANGE

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE NOM. 14.7 PSIA

PRESSURE

TOTAL VACUUM - 0 PSIA

PRESSURE INSTRUMENT
Types of Pressure Instruments
Pressure

Gauges (Vacuum, Compound, Absolute, Gauge)

Differential Pressure

Pressure Gauge
DIFFERENTIALP RESSURE TRANSMITTER

Switch (Vacuum, Absolute, Gauge) Pressure Switch

Differential Pressure

Transmitter (Vacuum, Absolute, Gauge) Pressure Transmitter

Differential

PRESSURE GAUGE

PRESSURESWITCH

PRESSURE GAUGE
Measuring Principle Bourdon tube measuring element is made of a thin-walled C-shape tube or spirally wound helical or coiled tube. When pressure is applied to the measuring system through the pressure port (socket), the pressure causes the Bourdon tube to straighten itself, thus causing the tip to move. The motion of the tip is transmitted via the link to the movement which converts the linear motion of the bourdon tube to a rotational motion that in turn causes the pointer to indicate the measured pressure.

Helical Bourdon Coiled Bourdon

C Type Bourdon

Pressure Transmitter A Pressure Transmitter is used where indication and/or record of pressure is required at a location not adjacent to the primary element. A Pressure Transmitter is used for both indication and control of a process. A Pressure Transmitter is used where overall high performance is mandatory.

NEW RESEARCH FOR PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Sensing Line Connecting a Pressure Transmitter to the Process

3.FLOW MEASUREMENT Flow is measured as a quantity (either volume or mass) per unit time Volumetric units Liquid G pm, bbl/day, m3/hr, liters/min, etc. Gas or Vapor ft3/hr, m3/hr, etc. Mass units (either liquid, gas or vapor) lb/hr, kg/hr, etc. Flow can be measured in accumulated (totalized) total amounts for a time period gallons, liters, meters passed in a day

FLOWDETECTORS

Velocity will vary directly with the flow and as the flow increases a greater pressure differential will occur across the restriction. To measure the rate of flow by the differential pressure method, some form of restriction is placed in the pipeline to create a pressure drop.

ORIFICE PLATE
A simple device, considered a precision instrument. It is simply a piece of flat metal with a flow-restricting bore that is inserted into the pipe between flanges. The orifice meter is well understood, rugged and inexpensive. Its accuracy under ideal conditions is in the range of 0.75-1.5%. It can be sensitive to a variety of error-inducing conditions, such as if the plate is eroded Orifice Plate are damaged.

Orifice Flanges

Orifice Plate

VENTURI TUBE
In a Venturi tube, the fluid is accelerated through a converging cone, inducing a local pressure drop. An expanding section of the meter then returns the flow to near its original pressure. These instruments are often selected where it is important not to create a significant pressure drop and where good accuracy is required. Used when higher velocity and pressure recovery is required. May be used when a small, constant percentage of solids is present.

4.LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Accurate continuous measurement of volume of fluid in containers has always been a challenge to industry. This is even more so in the nuclear station environment where the fluid could be acidic/caustic or under very high pressure/temperature. Level Measurement Basics The pressure at the base of a vessel containing liquid is directly proportional to the height of the liquid in the vessel. This is termed hydrostatic pressure. As the level in the vessel rises, the pressure exerted by the liquid at the base of the vessel will increase linearly. Mathematically, we have: P = S H Where P = Pressure (Pa) S = Weight density of the liquid (N/m3) = .g H = Height of liquid column (m) . = Density (kg/m3) g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)

There are two methods for level measurements: Direct method In direct method Direct method: Level is measured by direct contact with the fluid surface. Either the fluid surface is visible to be compared directly to a scale, or direct contact is made with the fluid surface. Indirect method: Level is inferred by means other than direct contact with the Fluid surface. Fluid level is inferred by its effect on some type of device.

Sightglass
It is quite straight forward method. In these the level in the glass seek the same position as the level in the tank. It provides a continuous visual indication of liquid level in process vessel or small tank, more convenient than other direct method. This method for local indication, during the power failure , maintenance ,this method is used manually. The main disadvantage ;may be chance of breakage when hot, corrosive& flammable liquid is handled.

Bubbler Method
Bubbler systems are ideal for level measurement of open
channel run off systems or duct and tank situations where debris, foam, steam, or surface turbulence makes standard methods of level measurement impractical. This technique of level detection is employed for vessels which work below atmospheric pressure. This arrangement basically comprises of :
A pipe i.e. a dip tube: It usually has its open end mounted in proximity to the vessel base. A purge gas: It is normally an air supply but an inert gas can also be used specifically in areas which are susceptible to contamination or an oxidative reaction with the medium. As gas flows down to the dip tube's outlet, the pressure in the tube rises until it overcomes the hydrostatic pressure produced by the liquid level at the outlet. That pressure equals the process fluid's density multiplied by its depth from the end of the dip tube to the surface. A pressure transmitter or transducer: It is connected to the dip tube for the purpose of monitoring the pressure. A differential pressure regulator: It is mainly needed to create a constant flow of gas necessary for avoiding variations in calibration.

Capacitance Method
Capacitance is the property of circuit that stores electron & opposes a change in the circuit. The value is determined by area of the conductor ,the distance between the plates & the dielectric constant of the two insulators. Capacitance level measuring application, one plate is probe &while other is tank level .The dielectric is material in the vessel which determines the capacitance value when it rises or fall. The probes are mostly used for on/off application for alarm& switches& control function. This method is highly used in manufacturing & processing industries.