Respiratory

Olfactory Epithelium
Serous glands (secrete fluid)
Bipolar neurons
Immotile cilia with olfactory receptors

Respiratory Epithelium
Ciliated columnar cells: ciliated cells have a basal body
Goblet cells: secrete mucus
Brush cells: microvilli
Neuroendocrine (Kulchitskys) cells
Basal reserve cells
The Larynx
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Only in the area of the vocal
cord is there wear and tear
which is why there is Stratified
Squamous Epithelium
C-shaped cartilage rings
Trachealis muscle holds together
Trachea 2
Hyalin cartilage
Trachea
Separation artifacts
Lumen ciliated epithelium
Submucosa glands
Serous glands
Hyalin cartilage
CT
No smooth muscle = trachea
Trachea
Submucosa
Submucosa glands
Connective Tissue
Respiratory epithelium

Missing band
of smooth
muscle
Hyalin Cartilage
Subdivisions of the Lungs
Lobes: right (3) left (2) containing
secondary bronchi
Bronchopulmonary segments containing
tertiary segmental bronchi
Acinus (Terminal Respiratory Unit)
Secondary lobules
Primary lobules
Airway and artery
Intrapulmonary Bronchus
Arises from subdivisions of primary bronchi
Muscosa (pseudostratified with goblet)
Muscularis
Mucosa
Cartilage
Islands
Intrapulmonary Bronchus
REP
Submucosal
glands
Muscularis mucosae
Hyaline
cartilage
Pulmonary
artery
Trachea
Submucosa glands
Fibroelastic lamina propia
No smooth muscle
Hyalin cartilage
Broncus
Cartilage arranged in islands
Submucosa glands
Smooth muscle present
Bronchiole
Loose cartilage, glands,
mucous producing cells
Submucosa increases
Clara cells present
Gas exchange airways
Hybrid: brochiole to a respiratory
bronchiole (bronchiole function and
also gas exchange)
Progresses into alveolar
Gartner 12-4-4 Bronchioles
Brochioles: No glands; No cartilage
Juinqueira 17-12 Clara cells
Found in epithelium in bronchioles
Have morphology of a protein secreting cell
Secrete bronchiole fluid to decrease surface
tension and also to detoxify
Bronchiole
Clara cells
have a dome
shaped apex
(causes them
to stick out
into the
lumen)
Pulmonary
artery (travels
with the
conducting
airway); carries
deoxygenated
blood
As you go further down the division, the walls become
thinner and less complicated
Respiratory ep.
Ciliated cells
The Respiratory Portion

Respiratory bronchiole: similar to terminal bronchiole, but wall
is interrupted by alveoli; contains ciliated, goblet, and clara cells
As R.B. divide, the number of alveoli increases, goblet
cells become absent, and cilias cells decrease in number
Alveolar duct
Alveolar sac
Alveolus

c
o
n
d
u
c
tin
g

re
s
p
ira
to
ry

conducting
respiratory
*
Elastic fibers
Respiratory bronchiole
Terminal bronchiole Alveolus Respiratory bronchiole
Bronchi, Bronchioles, Acini
Lobule = terminal
bronchiole and
everything attached
Acini = respiratory
bronchiole and the alveolar
sacs and alveoli attached;
multiple acini per lobule
Juinqueira 17-13 Terminal bronchiole
Terminal bronchiole
Last part of conducting passage before
respiratory system
Bronchiole. Alveolar duct, alveoli
Alveolar duct
Alveolar
Sac
Bronchiole: Alveolar duct, alveoli
Alveolar Cells
Type I: 97% of alveolar surface
Type II: Secretes surfactant which is packaged into
multilamellar bodies and reduces surface tension at air-
blood interface; contains lamellar bodies (lipid +
protein); have mitotic capacity


Pulmonary Defense Mechanisms
Secretions from the goblet cells, seromucous glands,
Clara cells, immune cells
Mucociliary clearance mechanism
Alveolar macrophages
Immune / Inflammatory Cells in the Interstitium
Macrophagesl Lymphocytes; Plasma cells etc.

Alveolar Wall
Type I and Type II Cells
Type II cells: make
surfactant
Dust cells:
alveolar
macrophages
Type I cells:
participate in
formation of air-
blood barrier
(stretch thin)
Air Blood Barrier
Air exchange
Gas exchange
Dust Cells
Lymphatics: Thin Walled Structure with dust cells and Macrophages
Pleura
Cubodial epithelium: gives
support but is not thick
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE LUNG
Pulmonary Arteries
Arise from the pulmonary trunk; leave the heart
Carry deoxygenated blood
**Run with conducting airways**
Low pressure, low resistance system
Thin walled
End as capillary networks
Pulmonary Veins
Run by themselves, not connected to conducting airway
Carry oxygenated blood
Goes back to the heart
Airway and blood vessels
Airway
Intrapulmonary Bronchiole Pulmonary artery
shares the connective
tissue
Pulmonary vein:
by itself;
swimming in a
sea of alveoli
Airway and artery
Airway
Artery
Pulmonary Artery
Pulmonary vein
Pulmonary Vein: swimming in a sea of alveoli
Vein
NUTRITIVE BLOOD VESSELS IN THE
LUNG
Bronchial Arteries & Veins
Start from thoracic aorta or posterior
intercostal arteries
Arteries carry oxygenated blood
Veins carry deoxygenated blood
Found within the walls of the
bronchial tree
Also supply the pleura
Urinary System
removal of waste products from blood

excretion of metabolic waste products in urine
regulation of ion concentration (Na
+
, K
+
, etc.)
regulation of acid-base balance
regulation of blood pressure (renin secretion)
regulation of erythrocyte production
(erythropoietin)
vitamin D metabolism & storage (parathyroid
hormone)
regulation of calcium levels (parathyroid
hormone)
heme bilirubin urobilin
Renal
artery
Interlobular
artery
Arcuate
artery
Interlobar
artery
RP
caylx
Renal
pelvis
M
Medullary
rays
C
lobules
Renal
pyramid
(lobe)
Segmental
artery
Renal
column (Bertin)
renal corpuscle =
glomerulus + Bowmans capsule

nephron =
renal corpuscle + tubule
(2 million/kidney)

uriniferous tubule =
nephron + collecting duct
(50 miles)
juxtamedullary
nephron
cortical
nephron
interlobar artery
interlobular
artery

efferent arteriole

afferent arteriole

arcuate artery
Bowman's capsule

proximal
convoluted
tubule

distal
convoluted
tubule
collecting duct

lo
b
u
le

lobule
cortex
medulla
glomeruli
lobule
Renal Corpuscles
only found in cortex;
contains the
glomerulus in the
center
*
*
lobule
medullary
ray
renal
corpuscle
interlobular artery
medullary
ray
medullary
ray
Afferent arteriole
Efferent arteriole
Cells:
-podocytes
-mesangial cells
-endothelial cells
Glomerulus
Bowmans capsule &
space (plasma from the
blood enters this space)
Mesangial cells:middle vessel
Support; phagocytosis; repair; contractile; EPO
synthesis (extraglomerular mesangial cells =
lacis cells)


GBM ~68,000 Kd allowed to pass:

podocyte
processes

combined basal
lamina
endothelial cell
fenestrations
capillary lumen
urinary space
-type IV collagen network
-laminin network
-proteoglycans
Glomerular filtration
Bowmans space
Most of the resorption of nutrients:
PCT small intestine
*most tubules are proximal convoluted
Resorption is a two-step process:
1) pump into extracellular space
2) pass into capillary lumen

Most of resorption of water:
DCT large intestine
Proximal
convoluted
Tubule
cell
Active
resorption:
Na
+
/K
+
-ATPase
pumps
water
Cl-
basal
infoldings
peritubular
capillary
Na+
amino acids
sugars
polypeptides
Passive
resorption:
enzyme-rich
glycocaylx
endocytic
vesicles
Resorption:
Distal
convoluted
Tubule
cell
Na
+
/K
+
-ATPase
(aldosterone sensitive)
active: Na
+
passive: water
peritubular
capillary
Renal Cortex
Renal corpuscles
DCT
PCT with
a brush
border
and filled
lumen
Renal
corpuscle
PCT and DCT
Medullary Rays
give circular profiles
Renal Cortex
PCT
DCT
DCT
DCT
VP
UP
Intralobular
(afferent)
arteriole enters
the vascular
pole
Urinary pole
collects into the
proximal conv.
tubule
Large amount of microvilli
Collecting Duct
Received partially concentrated urine at the distal end of the DCT
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) from pituitary: causes aquaporin
channels to open up, letting water move from lumen into
interstitum
Cells of the C.D. are impermeable to water in the absence
of ADH
Beer acts to negate ADH release
Diabetes (Gr. A siphon)
Diabetes insipidus:
inability to make or respond to ADH CD remain
impermeable to water
Diabetes mellitus:
insulin deficiency (osmotic diuresis); results in high
glucose in blood; offsets osmotic gradient resulting
in high water excretion
Ducts of bellini: ends of the collecting ducts
Collecting Ducts
Thick and thin parts of loop of henle
Vasa
recta
T thin loop of Henle
A Ascending thick limb of loop of Henle
V vasa recta
CD collecting duct

Blood Pressure Regulation

juxtaglomerular (JG) cells respond to arterial
pressure(baroreceptors); found in the wall of afferent
arteriole
Low pressure signals to JG cells to release renin to
increase BP
macula densa: responds to low salt
conc.(chemoreceptors); specialized cells of the DCT;
signal nearby JG cells to release renin
N
a

To increase blood pressure:
adrenal
cortex
Renin cleaves angiotensinogen
Angiotensin II is a potent
vasoconstrictor; also
increases sodium
resorption which increases
water resorption and thus
also BP
Transitional epithelium (urothelium)
stretched
relaxed
Pseudostratified epithelium
Cells larger at lumen surface; umbrella
shaped; may be binucleated
Cells
transition
and
become
more
stretched
out
Urinary bladder
Lined with transitional epithelium
Layers of
unorganized
muscle
Urinary Abbreviations to Know
PCT
DCT
JG cells/apparatus
ADH
ACE
Endocrine System


Ductless glands
Usually secrete hormones into bloodstream
Generally have systemic effects

Endocrine tissue exists in many "non-endocrine" organs:
mesangial & JG cells (EPO & renin) in kidney
enteroendocrine cells in gut, lung

Functions of hormones:
regulation of metabolism and energy balance
regulation of smooth and cardiac muscle contraction
regulation of glandular secretions
regulation of growth and development
regulation of 'flight or fight" responses and reproduction

Types of hormones:
Protein: prolactin, growth hormone, etc.
Peptide: ADH, calcitonin, etc.
water-soluble: bind to cell surface receptors, activate 2
nd
messengers etc.
Lipid-derived:
from cholesterol: steroid hormones (estrogen, glucocorticoids, etc.)
from eicosanoids: prostaglandins
lipid-soluble: diffuse through cell/nuclear membranes, bind to nuclear receptors to effect gene
expression

Monoamine:
derived from: phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan thyroxine, melatonin, catecholamines, etc.
Pituitary portal system
(hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system)
releasing
or
inhibitory TRH
(TSHRH)
From hypothalamus
thyrotropes
TSH made
and
released
from pituitary
this regulatory system affects primarily anterior pituitary cells
Portal system =
capillary bed
connected via veins to
another capillary bed
posterior lobe
unmyelinated axons &
supporting cells
Pituitary Anterior Pituitary
Much more cellular
3 distinct cell types
Poster Pituitary
Mostly axons
Herring bodies store
Neurosecretion: releases
a transmitter into a space
which then goes into the
blood
Pars intermedia
Residual of
rathkes pocket
pars distalis
Pars
intermedia
pars nervosa
Posterior Pituitary Anterior Pituitary
Rathkes pouch separates the
pars distalis from pars intermedia
Intermediate lobe (pars intermedia)
minimal/absent in humans
cysts
(remnants of
Rathke's pouch
Basophils
pars intermedia
posterior pituitary anterior pituitary
Acidophiles:
-somatotropes (50%, growth hormone growth of muscle, cartilage)
-lactotropes/mammotropes (15%)
(prolactin: mammary gland development, milk production, hypertrophy in multiparous women)

Basophils:
tropic hormones: act on other (distal) endocrine organs
-corticotropes (15%)
(adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH)
-thyrotropes (5%)
(thyroid stimulating hormone,TSH)
-gonadotropes (10%)
(follicle stimulating hormone, FSH &
leutinizing hormone, LH)

Chromophobes
-degranulated acidophils/basophils
-folliculostellate cells
-stem cells?
Anterior Pituitary Cell Types
Acidophils
Basophils
Chromophobes
Anterior Pituitary Cell Types
Brilliant Crystal Scarlet, Aniline Bl, Martius yellow
Anterior pituitary fenestrated capillaries
B
C
H & E
Chromophils: have an affinity for dye; either acidophils
(appear red) or basophils
Chromophobs: appear clear
Nerve terminals with
oxytocin-NI & ADH-NII
posterior pituitary
-hormones are coupled to neurophysin I & II
-axons terminate near blood vessels
(fenestrated capillaries)
-calcium release stimulates exocytosis
-one axon may have thousands of nerve terminals
-hormone product can be stored in Herring body
right above the nerve terminal
Neurosecretion
Hormones RELEASED:
oxytocin
1) smooth m. contraction
(uterus)

2) myoepithelial cell- cell
contraction (mammary gland)

ADH (vasopressin)
increases collecting duct
permeability
No ADH = diabetes incipits
Herring
bodies
Retina
Hypothalamus
& sympathetic
nervous system
Pineal
inhibition
light-stimulated
nerve impulse
norepinephrine
(darkness promotes hormone [melatonin] production)
melatonin functions:
-participates in circadian rhythms (sleep cycles)
-disregulation jet lag & SAD (treat with bright light)
-role in puberty ~possibly resulting inprecocious development
-powerful antioxidant
Pinealocyte
m
e
l
a
t
o
n
i
n

L L D D
tryptophan
fenestrated
capillary
Melatonin elevated
during sleep
(darkness) pineal
gland stimulated
Make
Melatonin
Thyroid

Lots of circular structures with homogenous
staining due to colloid (storage form of
precursor hormone thyroglobulin)
Only endocrine organ that stores its
hormone on outside of the cell
Homogeneous staining with dark staining
around indicating follicular epithelium
(single layer surrounding each follicle)
Setpa of CT divide into lobes




Thyroglobulin
iodinated glycoprotein
comprises the major colloid
component; extracellular storage
form of inactive thyroid hormone
colloid
follicular
cells
fenestrated
capillaries
Thyroid Gland Homogenous Staining
Colloid surrounded by single layer of follicular cells (flattened cubodial epithelium)
Production of thyroid hormone
follicular epithelium

capillaries
colloid
TSH (from pituitary) causes follicular cells
to synthesize Thyrogloblin in their RER,
which will be shuttled to and stored in the
colloid mass
Follicular cells also take up Iodide (I-)
from the blood stream into the cell
Storage form is iodinated tyrosine
Conjugation mechanism in colloid
T1 = general storage form
T3 = active thyroid hormone; can be
made in cells outside the thyroid
T4 = thyroxin = precursor molecule
that can only be made in the thyroid
Hyperthyroidism:
-due to Graves' disease:
-autoantibodies against TSH receptor
-weight loss, muscle weakness, sweating, increased apatite
-due to follicular adenoma (cancer) or pituitary adenoma (thyrotropes)
exophthalmos
Hypothyroidism:
-due to iodine deficiency, autoimmune, low pituitary TSH release
-poor muscle tone, fatigue, cold intolerance, weight gain

Iodine-deficiency Goiter
low thyroxine
increased
TSHRH from
hypothalamus
increased TSH
from pituitary
hypertrophy &
hyperplasia of
thyroid cells &
increased colloid

Enlarged lakes of colloid
Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid Gland Thyroid Gland
Lakes of colloid; storage of precursor
(thyroglobulin) molecule for thyroid hormone
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Gland
Colloid
Lake
Dense CT capsule separates
Parathyroid from Thyroid
Fibroblast
nuclei
Parathyroid Gland
Oxiphil cells: dark central nucleus;
homogeneous pink staining cytoplasm
Fat
infiltration
THYROID: Parafollicular (C) cells

Clear cells on the side of the follicular; lies within the
epithelium but makes contact only with the basal surface
and blood vessels
Makes calcitonin
Lowers blood calcium levels by:
Decreasing osteoclast activity
Decreasing calcium absorption
Stimulates calcium deposition in bone

oxyphil
cells
oxyphil
cells
chief
cells
chief
cells
Parathyroid Gland
Mostly chief cells (making
parathyroid hormone)
Oxyphil cells: round, dark staining nucleus
and pink homogenous cytoplasm; found only
in the parathyroid and only appear at puberty
PARATHYROID: Chief Cells

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Stimulated by falling blood Ca levels
Increases blood calcium by:
Increasing osteoclast activity
Stimulating Vitamin D activation in kidney
Vitamin D stimulates Ca resorption in GI tract
and kidney
PTH opposes action of calcitonin, but only PTH is VITAL
Zona Glomerulosa
Round balls of cells surrounded by capillary beds
Thick clumps of cells not surrounded by a basement membrane
Thinnest
of the 3
cortex
layers
Beginning of the
Zona Fasiculata
With lipid droplets
Zona Fasiculata
Big cells, simple nucleus, lots of lipid droplets
Endothelial cell nuclei of blood vessels
Zona Fasiculata

Zona Reticularis
Eosinophilic cells with no
lipid droplet accumulation
Adrenal Gland
Supradrenal Gland
Zona Glomerulosa: under control of
Angiotensin II
Zona Fasciculita: responsive
to ATCH
Zona Reticularis: produces
gonadocorticoids
Medulla: modififed postganglionic
neurons that secrete epi & norepi into
the blood (modified neurosecretion);
norepi to epi change stimulated by
glucocortoids from cortex
Adrenal Gland
Adipocytes outside
of CT capsule
Dense CT Capsule
Zona Glomerulosa
Round balls of cells surrounded
by capillary beds
Part of the
Zona
Fasiculata
Adrenal Gland
Zona Reticularis
Zona Reticularis
Medulla
Large Veins with
longitudinally running
smooth muscle
ADRENAL CORTEX Hormone Production

Zona glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
Na2+ resorption in kidney, increases b.p.
controlled by Na+ & K+ levels, ACTH, and angiotensin II
promotes Na+ resorption & K+ excretion
Zona fasciculata: glucocorticoids (cortisol)
glucose metabolism (e.g. gluconeogenesis)
anti-inflammatory agent
controlled by ACTH
Zona reticularis: androgens (gonadicorticoids)
precursors for M & F sex hormones (DHEA
dehydroepiandrosterone converted to estrogen and
testosterone in ovaries & testes)
controlled by ACTH

ADRENAL MEDULLA Hormone Production

Chromaffin Cells
80% Epinephrine (adrenaline) [lighter cell]
20% Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) [darker cell]
Neuroendocrine cell derived from neural crest
Stimulated by endocrine system to release hormones
Target organ
adrenergic
(adrenaline, noradrenaline)
cholinergic
(acetylcholine)

Ch
adrenaline,
noradrenaline
(20:1)
Released directly into blood
1
st
1
st
2
nd
cholinergic
(acetylcholine)
Sympathetic neurons
(two-neuron chain):
( heart rate
blood pressure
-dilate bronchioles
-dilate coronary
arteries)
chromaffin
cell = postsynaptic neuron
Endocrine Abbreviations to Know
ACTH
ADH
FSH
GH
LH
PRL
PTH
T3/T4