Ge Ii 2013

CE 208 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING - II
DR.K.MUTHUKKUMARAN
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
TRICHY
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To emphasize the importance of soil investigations
including destructive and nondistractive methods.
To explain how earth pressure theory is important in
retaining structure design
To explain the concept of bearing capacity and how to
estimate the safe bearing capacity for various foundation
system including settlement consideration
To explain how do select a suitable shallow foundation
system for various site conditions and also analysis of
different foundation system
To explain in what circumstances pile is needed and how
do analysis the pile and pile group under various soil
conditions

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COURSE CONTENTS
Soil exploration - Planning - Augur boring - Soundings -
Sampling - Plate load test, static and dynamic
penetrations tests - geophysical explorations

Lateral Earth Pressure Plastic equilibrium - Rankine's
theory - Active and passive earth pressure for
cohesionless and cohesive soils - Earth pressure at rest
- Coloumb's wedge theory - Rebhann's and Culmann's
graphical solutions, Stability analysis

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Contd..
COURSE CONTENTS
Foundation - functions and requisites- Different types -
choice of foundation type general principles of design.
Bearing capacity - types of failures - Prandtl's and
Terzaghi's bearing capacity analysis - Bearing capacity
based on settlement and building codes

Shallow foundation - spread footings - combined footings
- trapezoidal and strap footings -Raft foundation -
Contact pressure distribution - settlement analysis -
Types of settlement, Control

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Contd..
COURSE CONTENTS

Deep foundation - piles - types - load carrying capacity of
pile - static and dynamic formula - pile load test -
penetration test - pile groups - Efficiency - Feld's rule
Converse Labarre formula, Settlement of piles and pile
groups - Negative skin friction under-reamed piles

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Contd..
COURSE CONTENTS
References
1. Murthy, V.N.S, A text book of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, UBS Publishers & Distributors
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi 1999.
2. Punmia, B.C., Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,
1995.
3. Gopal Ranjan and Rao, Basic and Applied Soil
Mechanics, New Age International (P) Limited, New
Delhi, 2002.
4. Braja M. Das, Principles of Foundation Engineering,
Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd., Singapore, 2005.

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COURSE OUTCOMES
Understand the importance of soil investigation for any
civil engineering construction
Analysis any earth retaining structures for any kind of
soil medium
Do proper bearing capacity estimation including IS code
methods
Do proper foundation proportioning for any kind of
shallow foundation system and also get exposed in
foundation analysis
To estimate pile and pile group capacity for any kind of
soils including group efficiency and negative friction
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Depth of Boring
The approximate required minimum depth
of the borings should be predetermined.
The estimated depths can be changed
during the drilling operation, depending on
the subsoil encountered. To determine the
approximate minimum depth of boring,
engineers may use the following rule
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Depth of Boring
1. Determine the net increase of stress, under a
foundation with depth as shown in the Figure.
2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, ',
with depth.
3. Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the stress
increase is equal to (1/10) q (q = estimated net stress
on the foundation).
4. Determine the depth, D = D2, at which /' = 0.05.
5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two
depths, D1 and D2, just determined is the approximate
minimum depth of boring required. Table shows the
minimum depths of borings for buildings based on the
preceding rule.
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Depth of Boring
Determination of the minimum depth of boring
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Depth of Boring
Depth of Boring
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Depth of Boring
For hospitals and office buildings, the following
rule could be use to determine boring depth
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Depth of Boring
When deep excavations are anticipated, the
depth of boring should be at, least 1.5 times
the depth of excavation. Sometimes subsoil
conditions are such that the foundation load
may have to be transmitted to the bedrock.
The minimum depth of core boring into the
bedrock is about 3m. If the bedrock is
irregular or weathered, the core borings may
have to be extended to greater depths.
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Spacing Boring
There are no hard and fast rules for the
spacing of the boreholes. The following
table gives some general guidelines for
borehole spacing. These spacing can
be increased or decreased, depending
on the subsoil condition. If various soil
strata are more or less uniform and
predictable, the number of boreholes
can be reduced.
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Spacing Boring
Approximate Spacing of Boreholes
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ROCK SAMPLING
Rock cores are necessary if the
soundness of the rock is to be
established.
small cores tend to break up
inside the drill barrel.
Larger cores also have a
tendency to break up (rotate
inside the barrel and degrade),
especially if the rock is soft or
fissured.
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Rock coring
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ROCK SAMPLING - Definition
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Rock Core Drilling
Done with either
tungsten carbide or
diamond core bits
Use a double or triple
tube core barrel when
sampling weathered or
fractured rock
Used to determine Rock
Quality Designation
core barrel
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Rock Quality Designation
RQD
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Rock Quality Designation
RQD
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is defined as the percentage of rock
cores that have length equal or greater than 10 cm over the total drill
length.
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Example on Core Recovery & RQD
Core run of 150 cm
Total core recovery =
125 cm
Core recovery ratio =
125/150 = 83%
On modified basis,
95 cm are counted
RQD = 95/150=63 %
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Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
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The Plate Load Test (PLT)
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The Plate Load Test (PLT)
Scale Effect in Foundation Design
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SITE INVESTIGATION
Soil exploration:
To obtain the information about sub surface
conditions at the site of proposed construction
SITE INVESTIGATION(CONTD)
Soil exploration:
Objective:
To select type and depth of foundation
To determine bearing capacity of soil.
To estimate the probable and differential
settlement
To establish the ground water level and to determine
the properties of water
To predict the lateral Earth Pressure
To select Suitable construction techniques
To investigate the safety oif the existing structures and
to suggest the remedial measures.

Stages in Sub surface exploration
Reconnaissance
Preliminary
Detailed
Recconaissance
It is the first step in the inspection of site and
study of topographical features such as
excavation, cuttings, quarries, escarpments,
land slides, flood marks and drainage
pattern etc.,
Preliminary Exploration
Depth of exploration is decided to a significant
depth. (A level at which the net increase in
vertical pressure becomes less than 10% of
the initial overburden pressure)

Guide Rules for depth of exploration
Isolated spread footing or raft: d = 1.5b
Pile foundations : d = 10m to 30m or 1.5b
Base of retaining wall : d = 1.5 x basewidth or d= 1.5 x
exposed height of face of wall (whichever is greater)
Dams : d = 1.5 x bottom width of earthdam or d = upto
bedrock
Floating Basement : d = depth of construction
Roads, Cuts and Fills : d = 1m for little cut or fill,
d=bottom width in deep cuts, d = 2m below GL for fill
General: d = 1.5m, d=3.5m in block cotton areas
Where d = depth of exploration, b = width of loaded area
Number and disposition of pits and boring
For compact building sites one bore hole or pit in each
corner and one in centre may be adequate
For smaller and less important buildings one bore hole
or one pit at the centre of the ground is sufficient
For larger areas cone penetration test or sounding
test performed at every 100m
On dam site - borings may be made at every 50m
spacing at U/S and few holes required at D/S
On road site the pits or bore holes are usually made
along the proposed centerline of the road and along the
ditch lines
Detailed Exploration
Methods:
Open Excavation
Test pits and trenches can be used
Disturbed or undisturbed sample of soil can be
inspected.
Shallow depth up to 3m
Greater depths over 6m

Borings:
Methods:
Auger boring
Auger and shell boring
Wash boring
Percussion boring
Rotary boring

Auger boring
Augers are used in cohesive and other soft
soil above water table
Hand augers are used for depths up to 6m
Mechanically operated augers are used for
greater depth . Also used in gravelly soils
Badly disturbed soil obtained
Satisfactory for highway explorations at
shallow depth
Auger and shell boring
Used for depth up to 50m
Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays
Shells for very stiff and hard clays
Small boulders, thin soft strata or rock or
cement gravel can be broken by chisel bits
attached to drill rods
Wash boring
Is a fast and simple method for advancing
holes in all types of soil
Boulders and rock cannot be penetrate by this
method
Percussion boring
Rock formations are broken by repeated
blows of heavy chisel or bit suspended by a
cable or drill rod

Rotary boring
Very fast method of advancing hole in both
rocks and soil
Also known as mud rotary drilling and the hole
usually require no casing
Sub surface soundings:
For exploring soil strata of an erratic nature
To determine density index, consistency,
angle of shearing resistance at various
depths

Types of subsurface soundings
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
In-situ Test
Cohesionless Soils
Useful for determining the relative density and angle of
shearing resistance in cohesionless soil
Used for determining UCC strength of cohesive soil
Standard penetration No is equal to the no. of blows
required for 300mm of penetration beyond a seating
drive of 150mm
Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)
No boring is required
Useful in determining the bearing capacity of soil
at various depth
To determine the skin friction value
Useful in soft, loose, silty sand, silt and clays
For obtaining the cone resistance, the cone is
pushed downwards at a rate of 10mm per/sec
through a depth of 35mm each time. The cone is
pushed by applying thrust
Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)
Test is conducted by driving the cone by blows of
the hammer
The no. of blows for driving the cone through a
specified distance is the measure of the dynamic
cone resistance.
The no. of blows required for the 30cm
penetration is taken as the dynamic cone
penetration

Geo physical Methods:
Sampling:
Lifting the soil sample from different depths
by using mechanical devices
Soil Samples are of two types
Disturbed the Natural structure of the soil gets
partly or fully modified
Undisturbed natural structure and properties
of the soil remain preserved

Types of samplers
Open drive sampler
It is thick tube type of a sampler
The area ratio is generally of the order of 30%
The samples essentially collected are disturbed type
Split spoon sampler
It is thick tube type of a sampler
Particularly used in sands
The area ratio is generally of the order of 30%
The samples essentially collected are disturbed type

Types of samplers

Thin walled sampler
It introduces very less disturbance to the soil
The area ratio is less than 10%
Used in the soil, which is very sensitive such as soft
clays and plastic clays
Stationary piston sampler
Special type of thin walled sampler
The samples collected are undisturbed type
Suitable for sampling soft soil and saturated sand

Samplers:
PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Vane shear test ideally suited for the determination
of the in-situ undrained shear strength of clay
SPT N
Value
Relative
density
Angle of
shearing
resistance
, (deg)
Compactnes
s
4 0.2 30 Very loose
4-10 0.2-0.4 30-35 Loose
10-30 0.4-0.6 35-40 Medium
dense
30-50 0.6-0.8 40-45 Dense
>50 0.8-1.0 >45 Very dense
Correlation between SPT N value and Angle of Shearing Resistance
SPT N Value Unconfined
compressiv
e strength,
kg/cm
2

Consistency
2 0.25 Very soft
2-4 0.25-0.5 Soft
4-8 0.5-1.0 Medium stiff
8-15 1.0-2.0 Stiff
15-30 2.0-4.0 Very stiff
>30 4.0-8.0 Hard
Correlation between SPT N value and unconfined compressive
strength of clayey soils
FOUNDATION
Part of a structure, transmits the weight of
structure to the ground
Required for distributing the loads of the
superstructure on a large area.
Foundation types depend primarily on the
depth and safe bearing pressures of the
bearing stratum, also restrictions placed
on differential settlement due to the type of
bridge deck

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR
FOUNDATIONS
Soil below does not fail in shear
Settlement is within the safe limits

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR
FOUNDATIONS
The design of foundations comprise of the following stages
From the site investigation report decide upon
which stratum to impose the structure load and its
safe bearing pressure.
Select the type of foundation, possibly comparing
the suitability of several types.
Design the foundation to transfer and distribute the
loads from the structure to the ground. Ensure that
the factor of safety against shear failure in the soil
is not reached and settlement is within the
allowable limits.

CHOICE OF FOUNDATION
SOIL CONDITION TYPE OF FOUNDATION
Compact sand deposits
extending to great depths
Spread footings
Firm clay on silty clay
extending to great depths

Spread footings
Piles, used when uplift forces
are expected
3m firm clay
Soft clay extending to great
depths
Spread footing low and
medium loads
Pile foundation heavy loads
Loose sand extending to
great depth

Raft foundation
Spread footings sand
compacted by vibro floatation
Driven piles or auger piles
CHOICE OF FOUNDATION
SOIL CONDITION TYPE OF FOUNDATION
7.5m soft clay
7.5m medium clay
Firm clay
Friction piles
Piers
Raft foundation
Floating foundation
20m Soft clay
Rock
Pile foundations
Caissons
2.5m compact sand
3.5m medium clay
Hard clay

Drilled piles
Pile foundations
6m soft clay
Medium dense sand extending
to great depths
Deep foundations cast in
place piles
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
Shallow foundation
Depth equal to or less than its width(D
f
/ B 1)
Deep foundation
Depth greater than width (D
f
/ B >1)

SHALLOW FOUNDATION
ADVANTAGES:
Cost (affordable)
Construction Procedure (simple)
Materials (mostly concrete)
Labour (does not need expertise)

SHALLOW FOUNDATION(CONTD)
DISADVANTAGES:
Settlement
Irregular ground surface (slope, retaining wall)
Foundation subjected to pullout, torsion,
moment.

TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Footing Enlargement of the base of the
column or wall it supports.
Strip footing
Spread or isolated footing
Combined footing
Strap or cantilever footing
Mat or raft foundations
TYPES OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SHALLOW
FOUNDATION
The overall size of Shallow footings is determined by
considering the effects of vertical and rotational
loads.
The combination of these two must neither exceed
the safe bearing capacity of the stratum or produce
uplift.
The thickness of the footings is generally about 0.8
to 1.0 m but must be capable of withstanding
moments and shears produced by piers or
abutments.

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SHALLOW
FOUNDATION(CONTD)
The critical shearing stress may be assumed to
occur on a plane at a distance equal to the
effective depth of the base from the face of the
column.

Cover to reinforcement should never be less
than values given in BS 5400: Part 4: Table 13,
and crack control calculation must be carried out
to ensure the crack width is less than 0.25mm

TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Strip Footing
Provide when the loads are light and soil is good
Provided for a load Bearing wall
Provided where columns are closely spaced
Also Known as continuous footing
TYPES OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
Spread or Isolated Footing
Provided to distribute the column load over
large area
Provided to support an Individual column
It may be square , circular , rectangular slab of
uniform thickness.

TYPES OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
Spread or Isolated Footing
TYPES OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
Combined Footings
Where the bearing capacity is low
Provided when two columns are close to each
other
Provided when property line so close to one
column
It may be rectangular and trapezoidal in plan

TYPES OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
Combined Footings
TYPES OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
Strap or Cantilever Footing
Provided when two columns are close to each other
Strap connects the two footings to behave as a one unit
TYPES OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
Mat Foundation
Provided,
- When allowable soil pressure is low
- To reduce the differential settlement on non
homogeneous soil

TYPES OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
Mat Foundation
TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Piles
Piers
Caissons
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Piles
Slender structural member made of steel, concrete or
wood
Provided,
When the strata is highly compressible and weak to support
the load
Plan of the structure is irregular
To tansmit the structural loads through deep water to firm
strata
To resist horizontal forces in addition to vertical loads (Earth
Retaining structures & tall structures)
In Expansive soils

DEEP FOUNDATIONS
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES:
Based on function
End Bearing Piles
Friction Piles
Compaction Piles
Tension or Uplift Piles
Anchor Piles
Fender Piles and Dolphins

DEEP FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES:
- Based on materials and composition
Concrete Piles
Precast
Cast-in-Situ
Driven Piles
Bored Piles
Timber Piles
Steel Piles
H-Piles
Pipe Pile
Sheet Pile
Composite Piles
Concrete and Timber
Concrete and Steel

Piles:
ASPECTS OF DESIGN OF PILED
FOUNDATIONS
All foundations must satisfy two criteria, no shear
failure in the soil and no excessive settlement;
There are well established methods for ensuring that
the first criteria is met, but the second presents more
of a problem.
The working load of an individual pile is based on
providing an adequate factor of safety against the soil
under the toe failing in shear and the adhesion
between the shaft and the soil surrounding it passing
its ultimate value and the whole pile sinking further
into the ground.
ASPECTS OF DESIGN OF PILED
FOUNDATIONS(CONTD)
Through soil parameters i.e. summing shaft
friction and bearing capacity. The ultimate
bearing capacity is usually modified to
compensate for the driving effect of the pile.
By means of test piles.
By means of dynamic formulae i.e. Hiley
formulae which equates the energy required to
drive the pile with its ultimate bearing capacity.

Piers
To transfer heavy axial or lateral loads to a deep
stratum below the ground surface
Caissons
Box like structure round or rectangular, sunk from the
surface of either land or water to some desired depth
BEARING CAPACITY
The supporting power of soil or rock is
referred to as its bearing capacity
Analysis
Analytically
Practically
BEARING CAPACITY(CONTD)
Analytically
Rankines analysis
Prandtl analysis
Terzaghis analysis
Meyerhofs analysis
Skemptons analysis
Brinch Hansens analysis
IS Code Method

BEARING CAPACITY(CONTD)
Practically
Plate load test
Reaction by gravity loading
Reaction by truss

Penetration tests
Standard penetration test
Dutch cone test
SETTLEMENT

Components of settlement
Immediate or Elastic settlement
Settlement takes place immediately after the
construction of the structure
Consolidation settlement
Settlement due to gradual expulsion of water from
the voids from the soil
Secondary consolidation settlement
Settlement occurs after completion of the primary
consolidation
SETTLEMENT(CONTD)
Allowable maximum settlement
Isolated foundation on sand - 40mm
Isolated foundation on clay 65mm
Raft foundations on sand 40 to 65mm
Raft foundations on clay 65 to 100mm

SETTLEMENT(CONTD)
Allowable maximum settlement in
buildings
Commercial and industrial buildings -25mm
Industrial buildings - 38mm
Ware houses - 50mm
Special machinery foundation - <5mm

DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
One part settles more
than the other
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Investigation of Geotechnical
Failures and Documentation
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Failures
Structure induced soil failures
Bearing capacity
settlement
Soil induced structural failures
Piping
Sand boiling
Liquefaction
Soil sliding (slope failure)
Retaining wall failure
Combination of these two

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Total length = 560m
No. of piers = 17
Type of pile: bored cast-in-situ pile
Pile diameter=0.75m
Pile length = 20.5m & 22.5m in piers
No. of piles in a pier=4 (2x2 pile group)
Size of pile cap= 3.3x3.3m
No. of piles in abutment = 6 (2x3 pile group)
Total no. of plies= 80
No. of Completed piles=28
Recommended no. of pile load test =3
Status of pile load test: one routine pile load test completed and failed
CASE STUDY - ROB
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Failure causes due to:

1. Geotechnical investigation aspects
a. Material characterization
b. Founding depth
c. Uncertainty in the estimation of shear parameters
d. Sensitivity of the clay
e. Activity of the clay
f. Expansiveness of the clay
2. Pile analysis and design aspects
a. Selection of proper soil design parameters
b. Selection of type of pile
c. Pile length and diameter
d. Pile spacing
e. Pile termination
f. Group interaction
g. Capacity calculation as per code
h. Casing or uncasing (considering the soft/loose soil)
3. Execution aspects
a. As per design
b. Type of boring (type of equipment used)
c. Washing of borehole
d. Gap between boring and concerting
e. Consultant contractor interaction

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According to the
pile load test
results, the
design load of the
existing pile is
less than that of
the capacity
estimated by the
designer
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148
Pier 3, p1
Pile length : 20.5m : no data for this location (soil investigation
location (chainage 181.405m) was not done at this chainage)

Near by available data: Chainage 165 (BH-2) & 260 (BH-3)
depth of investigation: 20.0m 21.5m

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150
151
Fine sand of
10.5m depth
Fine sand of
9.0m depth
Black clay 9.5m
depth
Black clay 4.0m
depth
Coarse sand
8.5m depth
Fine sand of
9.0m depth
Black clay 9.0m
depth
Coarse sand
3.0m depth
BH-2, 165m
BH-3, 260m
BH-4, 360m
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154
155
156
157
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Problems encountered related to
design and execution
The pile was executed with linear in the sand layers
which was not considered in the pile capacity estimation
The pile was terminated in clay stratum whereas the pile
capacity was calculated for both c-
Neighbor piling was done immediately (enough setting
time was not given)
Group effect was not considered in the capacity
calculation (since the soil is back clay, sensitivity may
causes the capacity)
Improper investigation, the investigation does not say
anything about the soil classification
Parameter selection
Misunderstand of the codel procedure

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The problem of assessment of subsoil properties from
available field and laboratory measurements is a crucial
step in the geotechnical investigations.

For industrial complexes, high-rise buildings over
extended areas, or dynamic construction of earth-dams,
complex infrastructure of cities (Settlement analysis of
foundations)
Construction on fills needs the distribution and variation
of consolidation characteristics of subsoil.
For seepage analysis and ground water problems
(distribution and variation of in-situ permeability
characteristics are essential)
For stability problems (density, shear strength, pore
pressure are essential)
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The problem of assessment of distribution and variation of
subsoil properties is reduced to an examination of records of
measured properties by an experienced geotechnical engineer.

GE gives the representative values of properties of the subsoil
under considerations. Despite the fact that such a procedure
works in some cases, but it is subject to criticism under legal
complications.

The procedure is ambiguous and does not recognize the basic
elements of the problem. It is an established fact that the
properties are arbitrary and on REPETITION of tests either by
the same engineer or by several other engineers does not yield
the same result. Ultimately, it cannot prescribe the level of
certainty and confidence limit associated with a chosen value.
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In-situ properties of subsoil deposits are
basically random (Lumb (1966); Schultz
(1971).
These random properties do show certain
spatial trends with depth as well as
horizontal locations.
The measurement of these properties in the
field and or laboratory will necessarily cause
uncertainty and DISAGREEMENT among
the results of various testing methods.
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Geotechnical Investigation

This is essential for following situations:
a) For new construction
b) For Rehabilitation and
c) For analysis of failures

Though the soil profile, bore-log details remain the,
same, the parameters interpreted from the available
records or new investigations for failure analysis and
rehabilitation work are of different nature and
accuracy. Highly reliable data base is essential.
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Geotechnical Investigation
Report Documentation
Geotechnical report normally should comprise of the following
details:
Inspection report
Laboratory investigation report
Field testing report
Disturbances of the soil at the time of testing
Statistical analysis of the data of the properties along the borelog
Methods used for statistical analysis
Biased and unbiased estimates with coefficient of variance
Interpretation of values, and methods used for the same.
Soil genesis
Recommended parameters for design
Codal provisions and the deviations observed, if any
Geotechnical engineering experts opinion on the recommended
values.
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Investigation of Geotechnical Failures and
Documentation

The recommended procedure for the investigation of geotechnical failures are

1.Planning the investigation
2.Site observation and Analysis
3.Testing programmes
4.Document and literature search
5.Geotechnical failure modes
- Settlement
Stability
Bearing Capacity
Earth pressure
Soil yielding (excessive)
Uplift
Drag down
Unanticipated loading conditions
Due to water flow
Structures founded on fills
Environmental geotechnology
6.Profile of Geotechnical failures
a. Spread Footing b.Mat etc.
7.Review of Design analysis
8.Investigation synthesis
9.Failure hypothesis development
10.Report preparations
11.Legal considerations
12.Video recording and photographs of the failure scenario

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Forensic Geotechnical Engineering - A
New Discipline
This can be defined as the application of geotechnical
engineering to the investigation of soil profile as well as
other performance problems. Forensic Geotechnical
Engineer translates knowledge gained through engineering
education and experience into an opinion and presents the
same to a judge or jury.
Forensic Geotechnical Engineering (FGE) includes the
investigation of the physical causes of the failures as well
as other sources of litigation and claims. This includes a)
preparation of geotechnical investigation, reports,
testimony at hearings, trials in administrative or judicial
proceedings. He-also renders advisory opinions to assist in
the resolution of disputes affecting life/property. FGE
should possess full spectrum of geotechnical skills and
exemplary characteristics of report interpretation. However,
this is a new discipline which is to be visualised in the
engineering curriculum.
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Legal Aspects

The legal considerations illustrate the reality that the
geotechnical engineering investigations of a failure
incident. This can be deemed as a FACT FINDING
mission that results in identifying the probable causes of
that results failure. In addition, it also reveals the party
responsible for that failure.
The geotechnical investigation reports documented will
be subjected to judicial review. Forensic geotechnical
engineer will assist the court in interpreting the technical
matters. Forensic geotechnical engineering will also
assist in the evaluation of weak and strong points of the
report documented and participate in the analysis of
issues.
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Professional Judgment
Engineering

The identification of probable failure modes and
the choice of such soil models contain a large
subjective element. Hence, practicing engineers
view in interpretation of geotechnical data from
the documented report is essential. Experienced
geotechnical engineers are aware of the risk
posed by undetected soft layers. A safety factor,
appropriate for the risk involved is chosen on the
basis of subjective opinion which reflects the
engineer's experience.
168
The subsurface exploration and data
interpretation is an ENGINEERING ART.
Professional experience play a dominant role in
the estimate of data. The investigation and
interpretation is to be done by qualified
Geotechnical Engineer. Forensic geotechnical
engineering is a new concept and needs
consideration for incorporation in the civil
engineering curriculum. Geotechnical
investigation report is to be documented in a
straight forward manner and without ambiguities
in the estimate of parameters.
169
Conclusions

A combination of on-site data collection, on and off-site testing and analysis
as well as documentation are common components of geotechnical
investigation.
Documentation is to be done without using any Jargons. It must be simple
and void of ambiguity.
Biased and unbiased properties along the borehole are to be prepared and
logged along the borehole.
Block sample and borehole sample testing are to be used in conjunction.
Soil layer profiling is to be done by probabilistic approach over the entire
project area.
Forensic geotechnical engineering is becoming a necessity in the present
day situation.
Geotechnical investigation report documentation is to be done by
geotechnical engineering only.
Preparation for expert testimony is increasingly becoming a large part of the
failure investigation.

170
Uses of piles
To carry loads which are too heavy to be supported by a shallow foundation
and are to be transferred to deeper, stronger and less compressible strata or
over a larger depth of the foundation soil.

To carry part of the load to deeper soil for reducing the settlement as in piled
raft foundations.

To carry horizontal loads as in bridge abutments or retaining walls and also to
increase the stability of tall buildings.

To withstand uplift forces in foundations as in expansive soils and floating
foundations.

To avoid loss of support by scour as in bridges.

To produce large differential settlement in situations where there are large
variations of column loads.

To compact foundation material such as loose sands.
171
Types of Piles
On the basis of their size (diameter)

Piles larger than 600 mm in diameter are called large diameter piles.

Sizes 300 to 600 mm are called normal or small diameter piles.

Piles of 150 to 250 mm in diameter are called mini piles while those below 150
mm diameter are classified as micro piles.
On the basis of the method of installation

driven cast in-situ
bored cast in-situ
precast driven
precast piles driven in pre-bored holes
On their action (that is, the purpose they are intended to serve)
Displacement piles (driven piles)
Non-displacement piles (bored piles)
Small displacement piles (driven steel H pile)
172
Codes on Piles

The specification for the four types of commonly used concrete piles are covered by
Indian Standard IS 2911 (Second revision) under the following heads:

Driven cast in-place (displacement) pilesSection 1
Bored cast in-situ (non-displacement) pilesSection 2
Pre-cast driven (displacement) pilesSection 3
Pre-cast piles driven in pre-bored (non-displacement) pilesSection 4.

In addition, the following Indian Standards also pertain to pile design and
construction:
IS 2911 Part IITimber piles
IS 2911 Part IIIUnder reamed piles
IS 2911 Part IVLoad tests on piles.
Factors affecting Choice of Type of Pile
Disturbance of nearby old structures: Vibrations are caused during pile driving.

Length and size of pile: Precast R.C driven piles are small in size and are usually
of length up to 16 m and size less than 550 mm. Bored piles can be taken very
deep provided they are reasonably large. They can also be of large diameters.
173
Time taken for piling: Driven precast and cast in-situ piles, can be more quickly
executed than bored cast in-place piles. However if ground heave is expected,
driven cast in-place piles will pose problems involving the integrity of the pile.

Loss of bearing at pile tip: In bored cast in-place piles, the success in washing the
base of the pile depends on the availability of good equipment, workmen and
experienced contractors.

Surface water currents: In sandy areas near large water bodies subsurface flow
channels may exist. In such cases, the concrete in cast in-place piles can be washed
out before it sets, thus causing local weakness.

Difficulty in pulling out casing: In pure sand deposits while using driven cast in-place
piles it will be difficult to pull out the casing after concreting. Defects like necking
occur in such cases.

Quality of concrete and its capacity to withstand deterioration: In bad environmental
conditions with chlorides and sulphates precast driven piles are superior to cast in-
place concrete which needs very good care and supervision in its placement. The
dumping of concrete especially in driven cast in piles from large height and with the
pile reinforcement in place, segregation of concrete cannot be avoided. It discourage
the use of driven cast in-situ piles.
174
Probability of negative skin friction: It is claimed that this can be reduced in precast
piles by bituminous coatings. However because of larger disturbances produced
while driving, driven piles produce more negative friction.

Possibility of pile damage during driving: If the driving is hard, precast driven piles
tend to get damaged in the body due to driving stresses and at head due to
inadequacy of equipment or lack of strength at the top.

Possibility of socketing: For bearing piles in weathered rock, bored cast in-place
piles are ideal and, if necessary, socketing of piles can also be carried out. This will
increase pile capacity considerably in soft and weathered rock formations. When
good rock is available at reasonable depths, bored piles taken to rock present the
best solution.
Load Carrying Capacity

The static method based on soil properties for all types of piles.
The dynamic method using pile-driving formulae based on the resistance
observed in the field in driving the piles for driven piles.
The wave equation method for driven piles. (Both the theoretical method and
case method using field values are used.)

IS 2911 incorporates only the first two methods
MINIMUM SPACING OF PILES
175
ESTIMATION OF GROUP BEARING CAPACITY
IS 2911 Part I Sec. 2 (1979) Clause 5.6 gives the following as the minimum
spacing of piles to be adopted in practice in terms of d, the diameter of the
pile.
1.Bearing piles (general) 2.5d
2.Bearing piles on rock 2.0d
3.Friction piles 3.0d
GROUP ACTION AND LATERAL RESISTANCE
OF VERTICAL PILES
176
IS 2911 recommends the following values:

Case 1: Pile cap above ground level. The capacity of the group is lesser
of the following two values.
Capacity of a single pile multiplied by the number of piles (bearing piles)

Frictional capacity along the perimeter of the column of soil enclosed by
the pile group together with the end bearing of the above column of soils
(friction piles)
Q
c
=Q
b
+[2(a+b)L]s
The value of ultimate bearing capacity is given by
Q
b
= bearing capacity of the base (a x b) as deep foundation in clay
L = friction length in load carrying strata
s = average ultimate shear value of strata
Case 2: Pile cap cast directly on reasonably firm strata.

Additional capacity of the pile cap on the ground is added to the capacity

Deductions to be made for the area occupied by the piles in the pile cap
177
Case 3: Presence of weak clay layer under the bearing stratum. The strength
of the foundation at the base with a spread of 60 at 2/3L in the case of piles
in clay and at the end of the piles in case of sand should be examined to
ensure the safety in bearing of the foundation.
Use of Group Efficiency Factors for Piles in Sand
Efficiency ratio of 0.7 for spacing of piles of 2d increasing to unity at spacing
of 8d
*Not applicable for all situations
178
179
180
181
182
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)

Load (MT)
183
1
10
100
1 10 100 1000
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)

Load (MT)
1
10
100
1 10 100 1000
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)

Load (MT)
Failure load (single pile) : 200t
Safe load (single pile) : 200/1.5 = 133.3t = 130 t
Additional load required (single pile) : 148
Additional load required (pile group)
: 4 x 148 = 592t
1400 kN 600t
184
Safe Bearing Capacity for Simple Cases

The safe bearing capacity of soils can be taken from those specified in code of
practices under the following conditions:

The soil is uniform to a depth at least three times the footing width.

The resultant of external forces passes through the middle third of the footing
area.

Most of the external forces are not dynamic in nature.

The ground water level is at a depth of at least equal to the footing width in
granular soils and twice the width in cohesive soils.

If the bottom of the footing is at least 2.0 m below the ground level, then only the
allowable bearing capacity should be increased by the weight of the soil between
the footing bottom and the surface as any subsequent excavation near the footing
will reduce the bearing capacity.
185
Major factors affecting Bearing Capacity

Size of the foundation
Shape of the foundation
Depth of the foundation
Inclination of the load
Inclination of the foundation base
Inclination of the ground
Position of ground water table
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
General Criteria

A suitable foundation for any structure must satisfy the following two
basic and independent criteria with respect to the underlying foundation
soils.
a) The foundation must have an adequate factor of safety
against shear failure or bearing capacity failure of sub
soil.
b) Vertical movements of foundation due to compression of
the soils beneath the foundation must be within tolerable
limits.

Generally, the allowable pressures are computed for both shear failure
and maximum permissible settlement criteria and usually the smaller of
the two is used in the design of foundations and is considered as net
allowable bearing capacity (NABC) of the soil. It is generally observed
that the computed bearing capacities of shallow foundations (from shear
considerations) on compact soils are generally high. Hence, in case of
compact soils, the bearing capacity values obtained from settlement
considerations generally govern the design.
NLC PROJECT
SLOPE STABILIZATION AND
DRAINAGE SYSTEM STUDY FOR
DUMPING AREA - MINE (II)
Presented by
Dr.K.Muthukkumaran
Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering-NITT

PARAMETRIC STUDY
No of Bore Holes : 16
Soil property provided for the bore hole : 6

BORE HOLE DETAILS
B.No D (m) Density
NMC
(%)
LL
(%)
PL
(%)
PI
(%) CI
NMC
(%) C (kPa) Soil Type
HI/3-B 1.45-1.75 14 59 18 41 1.09 13.7 375 Very Hard
HI/3-D 6.75-7.0 19 81 26 51 1.22 18.7 250 Hard
HI/3-H 13.2-13.7 28 65 25 40 0.93 28 50 Soft to Medium st
HI/3-M 20.4-20.8 - - 10.9 389 Very Hard
HI/3-N 23.3-23.6 21.9 225 Hard
HI/3-O 24.7-24.9 22.2 39 24 15 1.12 22.2 768 Very Very Hard
HI/3K 15.65 22.11 37.2 96.8 34 62.8
HI/3F(a) 10.45 17.5 31.8 12 29.4 82.6
HI/3F(b) 10.05 19.21 28.7 86.5 31 55.5
HI/1-A 4.9-5.3 25.2 256 Hard
HI/1-B 18.5-19 20.5 384 Very Hard
HI/1-C 23.25-23.65 7 27 14 13 1.54 6.94 894 Very Very Hard
HI/1-D 26.2-26.6 11.6 25 14 11 1.13 11.6 475 Very Hard
B.No D (m) N Soil Type
HI-6 2.5 28 Black Clay
3.5 Black Clay
4.5 31 Grey Clay with Kankar
12.5 36 Brownish Yellow Clay with Kankar
18.5 39 Brownish Yellow Clay with more Kankar
20.5 44 Brownish Yellow Clay with more Kankar
22.5 47 Redish Clayey Sand Stone
27.5 Redish Clayey Sand Stone
28.5 46 Fine to medium grain Sand stone
30.5 43 Fine to medium grain Sand stone
HI-8 2.5 32 Black Alluvial Clay
3.5 Black Alluvial Clay
4.5 35 Light Grey Clay with Kankar
11.5 Light Grey Clay with Kankar
12.5 43 Yellow clayey with Kankar
20.5 55 Brownish Clayey sand stone
21.5 Brownish Clayey sand stone
22.5 43 FineGrain Sand Stone
28.5 41 Reddish Cleyey Sand Stone
HI-11 3 40 light grey clay
3.5 light grey clay
5.8 38 Grey Clay with Sand
8 Grey Clay with Sand
8.5 41 Grey Clayey Sand stone
10.5 45 Grey Clayey Sand stone
11 Grey Clayey Sand stone
11.5 64 Brownish Yellow Clay Sand stone
13.5 Brownish Yellow Clay Sand stone
14.5 Fine Sand stone with Clay
15 85 Sandy clay (Yellow)
18.5 24 Sandy clay (Yellow)
26 Sandy clay (Yellow)
26.5 45 Sandy with clay
B.No D (m) Density
NMC
(%)
LL
(%)
PL
(%) N C (kPa) Soil Type
HI-4 0 GL
1.5 2.05 23.82
Grey with white sandy silty Clay with
Gravel
2.5 17 Grey Sandy silty clay with Gravel
3.5 1.91 31.32 70 12.98 62 Grey Sandy silty clay with Gravel
4.5 22 Grey Sandy silty clay with Gravel
5.5 1.98 31.99 78 17.39 78 Grey Sandy silty clay with Gravel
6.5 20
Grey with Brown Sandy silty clay with
gravel
7.5 2.12 26.36
Grey with Brown Sandy silty clay with
gravel
8.5 23
Brownish Yellow Sandy silty clay with
gravel
9.5 2.08 39.74 12 Brownish Yellow Sandy clay with silt
10.5 25
Brownish yellow with light grey sandy
clay with silt and gravel
12 35
Brownish yellow with light grey sandy
clay with silt and gravel
13.5 1.96 39.21 78 19.6 31 Brownish red Sandy Silty Clay
15 78 13.36 25 Brownish red Sandy Silty Clay
B.No D (m) Density
NMC
(%)
LL
(%)
PL
(%) N C (kPa) Soil Type
HI 4 16 2.09 30.18 27 Brownish red Sandy Silty Clay
17 33
Dark Brownish red Sandy Silty Clay
with Gravel
18 Brownish red Sandy Silty Clay
19 28 Brownish red Sandy Silty Clay
20 30
Brownish red with yellow Sandy Silty
Clay
21 2.1 6.37 47 Brownish with yellow Sandy Silty Clay
22 26 Brownish white silty clayey sand
23 1.98 25.8 Brownish white silty clayey sand
25 2.09 31.12 55 16.2 Brownish white silty clayey sand
27 2.11 14.19 33 10.82 Brownish white silty clayey sand
29 2.04 31.84 71
Brownish whitegravelly clayey sandy
silt
ARRIVED SOIL DATAS
Depth
(m)
Soil type
(kN/m
3
)
C
(kN/m
2
)

(deg)
N E
(kN/m
2
)

Above GL Dump Soil 17 75 10
0
- 25000 0.35
Below GL
(0-25)
Clayey
Soil (C
1
)
19 150 - 26 32500 0.35
Below GL
(25-29)
Sandy Soil 18 - 33
0
33 50000 0.3
Below GL
(25-30)
Clayey
Soil (C
2
)
17 100 - 20 25000 0.35
METHODOLOGY
Case 1 : Self Weight
Case 2 : Self weight + Pore water
pressure
MODELLING PLAXIS 2D
Model Plain strain
Soil Element 15 node triangle element
Soil Model Mohr-Coulomb
Calculation Plastic Analysis

CROSS SECTION A-A
Due to self weight
CROSS SECTION B-B
Due to self weight
CROSS SECTION C-C
Due to self weight
CROSS SECTION A-A
Due to self weight + Pore water pressure
CROSS SECTION B-B
CROSS SECTION C-C
Observation Old Dump Area
The soil (dump materials) is predominantly
coarse grained soil with fines.
According to IS classification, it is SM/SC
group of soils up to 38.0m depth. Beyond
38.0m, the soil is lean clay/low compressible
clay (CL) layer.
The clay layer is generally hard consistency
and other characteristic of this layer is
reasonably good as per as engineering
properties concern
Therefore, the problem of mass movement
may not be extended up to this depth (up to
38.0m).
The variation of SPT values shows very
clearly that, the soil is under
compaction/consolidation depth up to 24.0m
from the existing top surface.
Below 24.0m depth, the soil is well
compacted state due high overburden
pressure
The top 24.0m depth soil
strength/compactness varies from loose to
dense. In which the top 18.0m depth soil may
create problems in terms of mass movement
Recommendations for old dump
stabilization
In old dump area, the dump has been raised
up to +132.0m (as per the drawing) with
different slope angle from East to West and
North to South.
The Sub-soil is subjected to a maximum
overburden stress of 2376kN/m
2
&
1081kN/m
2
under saturated and dry
conditions.
It is also observed, the ground level itself
having an elevation difference of 7 to 10m
from East to West
EAST
WEST
Mass Movement from West to East
EAST
WEST
Mass Movement from West to East
Rigid Structure
Rigid Structure
- gravity wall structure
- Crib or bin wall
- Reinforced earth
- cantilever and counterfort walls
- gabions and welded wire walls
- pile supported structure
- sand + lime + fly ash mixed column
- slurry grout (form a solid column)

The stability of slope is governed by topographic, geologic,
and climatic variables which control shear stress and shear
resistance in a slope
Slope movement occurs when shear stresses exceed shear
strength of the materials forming the slope
Any variable of factor that increases shear stress or
conversely that decreases shear strength will tend to cause
slope movement
Removal of lateral support by natural or human is the most
common of all factors leading to instability
Using buttress or retaining structures at the foot of slopes as a
remedial measure
The addition of water to a slope may contribute to both an
increase in stress and decrease in strength
Water is one of the main controlling factors in the slope
movement

Role of vegetation in the stability
and protection of slopes
Root reinforcement
Soil moisture modification
Buttressing and arching
Surcharge
Root wedging
Wind throwing

Steep slope area (mass movement)
Toe of the slope needs to be strengthen by
rigid structure system
The sub-soil is Alluvial clay the most
suitable stabilization is using admixtures
lime + fly ash mixed with clay ( soil mix) up to
10m below the existing ground level

Mild slope (slope stability)
The entire old dump area needs to be strengthen
by vegetation with/without coir geotextile
Initially, the coir will act as reinforcement to the
soil and give better shear resistance
The life of the coir will not be more than 3 years,
by this time the vegetation roofs will extended in
the soil and provide more shear strength to the
soil
The coir will subjected to organic decomposition
which will produce extra fertilizer to the vegetation

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CE 208 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING - II

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