Presentation Outline

CDMA Basics
Multiple Access Technology Survey
Spread Spectrum Principles
CDMA N/w Structure
Advantages of CDMA.

CDMA Details and Operations
Forward and Reverse Channel Structure
Power Control
CDMA Handset Architecture
Handoff Mechanics
Multiple Access Technologies
FDMA (Example: AMPS)
Frequency Division Multiple Access
each user has a private frequency
TDMA (Example: GSM)
Time Division Multiple Access
each user has a private time on a
private frequency
CDMA (Example: IS-95)
Code Division Multiple Access
users co-mingle in time and
frequency, but each user has a
private code
CDMA is a Spread-Spectrum System
Traditional Technologies try to
squeeze signal into minimum
required bandwidth


CDMA uses larger Bandwidth but
uses resulting processing gain to
increase capacity
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
Different Stations use the entire frequency band at same time.

Stations are differentiated by Unique Codes.

Intended Receiver knows the Code in advance and hence recovers
the signal.

It employs Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Technique.

Since a wideband spread spectrum signal is very hard to detect, it
appears as nothing more than a slight rise in the "noise floor" or
interference level.

It was first developed for military applications to avoid jamming.
Spread Spectrum Principles
The standard data rate of a CDMA call is 9600 bits per second,
this initial data is "spread by the application of digital codes
to the data bits, up to the transmitted rate of about 1.23
megabits per second. At the receiving end, the digital codes are
separated out, leaving only the original information.
CDMA is a "spread spectrum" technology, which means that it
spreads the information contained in a particular signal of
interest over a much greater bandwidth than the original signal.
CDMA Block Diagram
A/D
Converter
Vocoder
Encoding &
Interleaving
Spreading
D/A
RF (QPSK)
Code
Antenna
PSTN
PSTN BSC BTS
Subscriber Unit Block Diagram
Despread
Users code
Deinterleave
& Decode
Vocoder Codec
Variable Rate Vocoding & Multiplexing
Vocoders compress speech, reduce bit
rate, greatly increasing capacity
CDMA uses a superior Variable Rate
Vocoder
full rate during speech
low rates in speech pauses
increased capacity
more natural sound
Voice, signaling, and user secondary
data may be mixed in CDMA frames
Two types of CDMA
Frequency Hopping
Each users narrow band signal hops
among discrete frequencies, and the
receiver follows in sequence.
Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum(FHSS) CDMA is NOT
currently used in Wireless Systems,
although used by the military.
Direct Sequence
Narrow band input from a user is
coded (spread) by a user unique
broadband code, then transmitted.
Broadband signal is received;
receiver knows, applies users code,
recovers users data.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS) CDMA IS the method used
in IS- 95 commercial systems.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum CDMA

b(t)
recovered
Data b(t)
at low
bit rate
Pseudo-noise sequence
c(t) at high bit rate
(sequence is unique for each
connection; the code)
Spreading
Over the
air
DeSpreading
c(t)

Transmitter
Receiver
CDMA FH-SS Concept
f(N)
f(N-1)
f2
f1
Chip Duration
Frequency hops based on a pseudo-random sequence
Chip rate >> Information Data Rate
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)
Multiple users share a common broadband channel by
spreading their (narrowband) data across the entire channel
Code sequences are used to spread the baseband data; each
logical channel uses a different code sequence
The ratio of the code data rate to the baseband data bit rate
is called the processing or spreading gain
The process involves digital modulation, and is performed
in addition to analog modulation
Example for DS-SS CDMA
Despread
Signal b(t)c(t)c(t)
recovers b(t)
1
-1
Baseband
Signal b(t)
1
-1
Spread
Signal b(t)c(t)
1
-1
Sequence is -1,1,1,-1,-1: 5 chips per symbol
PN Sequence
Signal c(t)
1
-1
Correlation of Code Sequences
Each time period in the code sequence is a chip, because the
input signal is being divided, or chipped, into multiple output
symbols per input symbol.
Also, all code sequences in a code set are of the same length
A code is correlated with another code based on the sum of the
products of the corresponding chips in the two codes
Avg of Sum of products = 1, => 100% correlation
Avg of Sum of products = 0, => no correlation; the term for
this is orthogonal
Examples of Correlation of Code Sequences
C
1
(t):-1, 1, -1, 1, 1, -1, 1, -1
C
2
(t):-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1

C
1
*C
2
1, -1, 1, -1, -1, 1, -1, 1

Sum over the sequence length:
1 -1+1-1-1+1-1+1 = 0
Average over the sequence length:
0/8 = 0

No correlation of C and D
=> C
1
and C
2
are orthogonal
C(t):-1, 1, -1, 1, 1, -1, 1, -1
C(t):-1, 1, -1, 1, 1, -1, 1, -1

C*C 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1

Sum over the sequence length:
1 +1+1+1+1+1+1+1 = 8
Average over the sequence length:
8/8 = 1

correlation of C with itself

CDMA 2nd
generation
wireless
AMPS
CNET
RC
2000
NMT
900
NMT
450
TIA
TDMA
IS-136
ISDN
TACS
Regulatory
standards
Wired
Systems
First Generation
Wireless Systems
Development of CDMA Standard
NMT-Nordic Mobile Telephone
TACS-Total Access Communication System
Fig shows how the CDMA standard was developed using
many proven technologies.
Hence CDMA is called Second Generation cellular
system.
Only radio portion of the MS and BSs are substantially
different in hardware.
Thus the CDMA standard can be implemented at 800 MHz
in one location, and then at 1900 MHz in another location.
Since hardware's are different for these frequencies, a
single mode 800 MHz handset will not function in an 1900
MHz CDMA network.
Hence some manufacturers produce handsets that can operate on
either frequency band (dual band handsets)
Forward or Down link - Base transmitter to the mobile receiver
- all CDMA network uses a specific radio bands for signals
Reverse link or Up link - mobile transmitter to the Base receiver
- second distinct radio frequency band for signals
A pair of radio carrier frequencies (matching uplink & downlink)
is referred to a frequency
What is carrier and channel w.r.t CDMA ?
CDMA documents consistently distinguish between both the words
In CDMA, a carrier is divided by means of codes into 64
individual channels.
Each channel carriers the information related to a separate &
distinct conversation in digitally coded form.
In some cases an individually coded channel carries signals related
to the beginning of a conversation.
Channel is synonymous with a carrier.
AMPS Spectrum
- MS transmitted band - 824-849 MHz
- BS transmitted band - 869-894 MHz
Radio Frequency Spectrum
PCS Spectrum
- MS transmitted band - 1850 - 1910 MHz
- BS transmitted band - 1930 - 1990 MHz
Second VLR is
Optional
CDMA System

HLR
VLR
VLR
AuC
BTS
OMC
MSC
BTS BSC
BTS BSC
BTS
BSC
BSS
To other MSCs
PSTN
AIR
INTERFACE
IS-41
Intersystem

BSC
Tx Combiner
BT0

BT1
BTn
. . .
BCF
Rx Multiplier
Rx Multiplier
To
MSC
Tx Ant
BSS
1
st
Rx ant
2
nd
Rx Ant
BTS
CDMA Base Station Block Diagram
CDMA Cell Site Frame Layout (AT & T)
Dramatically improving the telephone traffic (Erlang) capacity
Dramatically improving the voice quality and eliminating the
audible effects of multipath fading
Reducing the incidence of dropped calls due to handoff failures
Providing reliable transport mechanism for data
communications, such as facsimile and internet traffic
Reducing the number of sites needed to support any given
amount of traffic
Simplifying site selection
Reducing deployment and operating costs because fewer cell
sites are needed
Reducing average transmitted power
Reducing interference to other electronic devices
Reducing potential health risks
CDMA Advantages
Increased System Capacity
Simplified Frequency Reuse
Improved Interference Immunity
Lower RF Power Requirements at the Cell Site
Soft/Softer Handoffs
Variable Rate Speech Coding
Packetized Communications Structure
Cloning Protection

Benefits of CDMA to Service Providers
Improved Privacy
Excellent Voice Quality
Soft and Softer Handoff to Improve Call Quality
Longer Battery life for Mobile Phone Units
Packetized Structure to Support Simultaneous Voice
and Control Data
Increased System Capacity
Benefits of CDMA to End-User

Walsh Codes: 64 are available
64 chips long -- lasts 1/ 19200 sec
mutually orthogonal
PN Short Code: one pair is used (I & Q)
32K long -- lasts 26- 2/ 3 mS, repeats 75x in 2 sec.
generated in 15- bit tapped shift register
Nearly self- orthogonal if compared out- of- sync
PN Long Code: only one is used
2
42
-1 chips long -- lasts 40+ days!
=> generated in 42- bit tapped shift register
Any short sample is nearly orthogonal with any
other short sample
The Three CDMA Spreading Sequences
64 Magic Sequences, each 64 chips long
Each Walsh Code is precisely Orthogonal
with respect to all other Walsh Codes
its simple to generate the codes, or
theyre small enough to use from ROM
Unique Properties:
Mutual Orthogonality
Walsh Codes
Other CDMA sequences are
generated in shift registers
Plain shift register: no fun,
sequence = length of register
Tapped shift register generates a
wild, self- mutating sequence 2
N
-1
chips long (N= register length)
Such sequences match if
compared in step ( any sequence
matches itself)
Such sequences appear
approximately orthogonal if
compared with themselves not
exactly matched in time
false correlation typically <2%
Other Sequences - Generation & Properties
The short PN code consists of two
PN Sequences, I and Q, each
32,768 chips long
Generated in similar but
differently- tapped 15- bit shift
registers
Theyre always used together,
modulating the two phase axes
of a QPSK modulator
The Short PN Code
Generated in a 42- bit register, the PN Long code is more than 40 days long
(~ 4x10
13
chips) -- too big to store in ROM in a handset, so its generated
chip- by- chip using the scheme shown above
Each handset codes its signal with the PN Long Code, but at a unique
offset computed using its ESN (32 bits) and 10 bits set by the system
this is called the Public Long Code Mask; produces unique shift
private long code masks are available for enhanced privacy
Integrated over a period even as short as 64 chips, phones with different
PN long code offsets will appear practically orthogonal
The Long PN Code
The three spreading codes are used in different ways to create
the forward and reverse links
A forward channel exists by having a specific Walsh Code
assigned to the user, and a specific PN offset for the sector
A reverse channel exists because the mobile uses a specific
offset of the Long PN sequence
Putting it All Together : CDMA Channels
Code Channels in the Forward Direction
Functions of the CDMA Forward Channels
Pilot Channel
Each CDMA carrier has its own pilot channel. A pilot channel provides pilot
signal periodically, so mobiles can identify which cell site(s) or sector(s) they
are listening to.
All pilot channels share the same PN 0 (Walsh function of 64 0s) among all
CDMA sectors but are differentiated by PN sequence offsets.
There are 512 possible time pilot PN offset indices to distinguish among 512
distinct sectors in a system. Each offset index is 64 chips in length.
Synchronization Channel
PN 32 is designated as the sync channel, which has a low bit rate of 1200 bps.
It is used with the pilot channel to acquire initial time synchronization which
allows rapid synchronization of mobile to network.
Using the selected pilot channel as reference, the mobile coherently demodulates
the sync channel, which the base station transmits continuously.
The information contained are: System ID, N/w ID, PN offset Index, System
Time etc.
Details of the CDMA Forward Channels
Paging Channel
When a mobile is to receive a call, it will receive a page from the base station on
the assigned paging channel.
The 42-bit mask consists of 1100011001101 (13 bits), 00000 (5 bits),
Paging Channel Number (PCN; 3 bits), 000000000000 (12 bits), and pilot
PN sequence offset index (9 bits).
Up to seven PNs can be assigned to paging channels based on the traffic need.
PN numbers 1 to 7 (i.e., W 1 to W 7 ) are reserved for these paging channels.
When unused, they can be reassigned as traffic channels.
Details of the CDMA Forward Channels
Code Channels in the Reverse Direction
There are two types of CDMA Reverse Channels:
Although a sector can have up to seven paging channels, and each
paging channel can have up to 32 access channels, systems today use
only one paging channel per sector and only one access channel per
paging channel.
Functions of the CDMA Reverse Channels
Access Channel
When a mobile is ready to originate a call, it sends out a request via the access
channel to the base station associated with the strongest pilot signal received by
the mobile. The channel is also used when responding to a "page".
Each access frame has 96 bits (88 data plus 8 flush; 20 ms frame at 4800 bps).
The long code mask consists of 110001111 (9 bits), Access Channel Number
(ACN; 5 bits), Paging Channel Number (PCN; 3 bits), base_ID (16 bits), and
pilot PN sequence offset of the forward CDMA channel (9 bits).
The access channel provides several messages. The origination message allows
the mobile to send dialed digits. When it is accepted, a traffic channel is assigned
to the mobile.
The access channel provides several messages like: Registration, Data Burst,
Page Response, Origination, Authentication Challenge Response.
Reverse Traffic Channel
Used by individual users during their actual calls to transmit to the BTS.
Details of the CDMA Reverse Channels
Why is Power Control Needed?
Power control is essential to the smooth operation of a CDMA
system. Because all users share the same RF band through the
use of PN codes, each user looks like random noise to other
users. The power of each individual user, therefore, must be
carefully controlled so that no one user is unnecessarily
interfering with others who are sharing the same band.
Power control is implemented to overcome the near-far
problem and to maximize capacity.
Power control is where the transmit power from each user is
controlled such that the received power of each user at the
base station is equal to one other.
Why Power Control ???
The BTS continually reduces the strength of each users forward
baseband chip stream
When a particular handset sees errors on the forward link, it
requests more energy
The complainers chip stream gets a quick boost; afterward,
continues to diminish
Forward Power Control
Three methods work in tandem to equalize all handset signal levels
at the BTS
Reverse Open Loop: handset adjusts power up or down based
on received BTS signal
Reverse Closed Loop: Is handset too strong? BTS tells up or
down 1 dB 800 times/ second
Reverse Outer Loop: BSC has FER trouble hearing handset?
BSC adjusts BTS setpoint
Reverse Power Control
The open-loop power control in that it is purely a mobile
controlled operation and does not involve the base station at all.

This power control is used to compensate for slow-varying and
log-normal shadowing effects where there is a correlation
between the forward-link and reverse-link fades. However, since
the forward and reverse links are on different frequencies, the
open-loop power control is inadequate and too slow to
compensate for fast Rayleigh fading.
Reverse Open Loop
The closed-loop power control is used to compensate for power
fluctuations due to fast Rayleigh fading.

In the closed-loop power control, the base station continuously
monitors the reverse link and measures the link quality.

The base station sends the power-control commands to the mobile
using the forward link. These power-control commands are in the
form of power-control bits (PCBs).
Reverse Closed Loop
The closed-loop power worked such that there exists a
predetermined SNR threshold by which power-up and powerdown
decisions are made.

Since we are always trying to maintain an acceptable FER, and
since in a mobile environment there is no one-to-one relationship
between FER, the FER threshold has to be dynamically adjusted
to maintain an acceptable FER. This adjustment of FER threshold
(used by the inner-loop power control) is referred to as the outer
loop of the closed-loop power control

The outer-loop process is not defined by the IS-95 standard, and
each infrastructure manufacturer is free to implement its own
outer-loop algorithms.
Reverse Outer Loop
Whats in a Handset? How does it work?
Every frame, handset uses combined outputs of the three traffic
correlators (rake fingers)
Each finger can independently recover a particular PN offset and
Walsh code
Fingers can be targeted on delayed multipath reflections, or even
on different BTSs
Searcher continuously checks pilots
The Rake Receiver
Convolutional
Code Rate
Interleaver
(20mS)
64-ary Walsh
Func Modulator
9.6 Kbps

PN-I
PN-Q
Cos t
Sin t
User
Long PN
RF
At Mobile Transmitter:
At Mobile Receiver:
RF
Viterbi Soft
Decoder
Deinterleaver

Descrambler

9.6 Kbps

PN-I
PN-Q
Cos t
Sin t
Walsh
Function
User
Long PN
CDMA soft handoff is driven by the handset
Handset continuously checks available pilots
Handset tells system pilots it currently sees
System assigns sectors (up to 6 max.), tells handset
Handset assigns its fingers accordingly
All messages sent by dim- and- burst, no muting!
Users are totally unaware of handoff
CDMA Soft Handoff Mechanics
Each BTS sector has unique PN offset & pilot
Handset will ask for whatever pilots it wants
If multiple sectors of one BTS simultaneously
serve a handset, this is called Softer Handoff
Handset is unaware, but softer handoff
occurs in BTS in a single channel element
Handset can even use combination soft- softer
handoff on multiple BTS & sectors
Softer Handoff
Handset views pilots in sets
Handset sends message to
system whenever:
It notices a pilot in neighbor or
remaining set exceeds T_ ADD
An active set pilot drops below
T_ DROP for T_ TDROP time
A candidate pilot exceeds an
active by T_ COMP
Handoff setup processing
time usually << 1 second
Pilot Sets and Soft Handoff Parameters
What is Ec/Io
E
c

Energy of the
desired pilot Alone
I
o

Total Energy
Received
E
c
/ I
o

Cleanness of the pilot
Guides soft handoff decisions
Digitally derived: ratio of
good to bad energy seen by
the search correlator at the
desired PN offset.
Can be degraded by noise.
T_ADD
T_DROP
Pilot A in Active Set
2 Pilots in
Active set
Pilot B in Active Set
E
c
/I
o

Distance
Source Cell A
Target Cell B
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Handoff Example
Key Performance Indicators and Objectives
CDMA Performance Optimization
Success comes from managing resources
Dropped Calls, Access Failures, system FER
Soft Handoff Percentage
Capacity
Handoff: keep dynamics fast, delays short
Neighbor lists well- optimized
RF Coverage: holes vs. excessive overlap
PN Planning, optimum Search Window sizes
Per - Cell anomalies: watch parameters for clues