Developing Skills for Medical

Lab. Technicians
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Scientific Basics
Medical Laboratory
A medical laboratory or clinical laboratory is a laboratory
where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get
information about the health of a patient as pertaining to the
diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.
A medical laboratory is a place where tests are
done on clinical specimens and samples in order to
get information about the health of a patient as
pertaining to the diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention of disease


Laboratory Services include testing of materials,
tissues or fluids obtained from a patient or clinical
studies to determine the cause and nature of
disease

Medical
Laboratories
Clinical
Pathology
Clinical
Microbiology
Clinical
Biochemistry
Haematology
Histopathology
Cytology
Routine
Pathology
Bacteriology
Mycobacteriology
Virology
Mycology
Parasitology
Immunology
Serology
Biochemical
analysis
Hormonal
assays
What are Laboratory Services all about?
Laboratory Services play a critical role in the detection,
diagnosis and treatment of disease. Samples are collected
and examination and analysis of body fluids, tissue and cells
are carried out. Main services are:
To Perform diagnostic tests
To Identify organisms, like E-coli bacteria
To Count and classify blood cells to identify infection or
disease
To Operate complex diagnostic equipment
To Perform immunological tests to check for antibodies
To Type and cross-match blood samples for transfusions
To Analyze DNA
Services to provide..
Microbiology
Parasitology
Virology
Haematology
Coagulation
Clinical Biochemistry
Toxicology
Immunohaematology/Blood
bank
Urinalysis
Histopathology
Cytopathology
Electron microscopy
Genetics
Cytogenetics
Surgical pathology
Immunology/Serology
Departments and Services
Laboratory medicine is generally divided into two sections,
each of which being subdivided into multiple units. These two
sections are
Anatomic pathology: units included here are histopathology,
cytopathology, and electron microscopy. Academically, each
unit is studied alone in one course. Other courses pertaining
to this section include anatomy, physiology, histology,
pathology, and pathophysiology.

Clinical pathology, which includes:
Clinical Microbiology: This encompasses five different
sciences (units). These include bacteriology, virology,
parasitology, immunology, and mycology.
Clinical Chemistry: Units under this busy section
include instrumental analysis of blood components,
enzymology, toxicology and endocrinology.
Hematology: This section consists of automated and
manual analysis of blood cells. It includes two subunits,
which are coagulation and blood bank.
Genetics is also studied along with a subspecialty known as
cytogenetics.
Reproductive biology: Semen analysis, Sperm bank and assisted
reproductive technology.
Distribution of clinical laboratories in health institutions varies
greatly from one place to another. For instance, for microbiology,
some health facilities have a single laboratory for microbiology,
while others have a separate lab for each unit, with nothing called
a "microbiology" lab.
The following is a detailed breakdown of the responsibilities
of each unit:
Microbiology receives almost any clinical specimen,
including swabs, feces, urine, blood, sputum, cerebrospinal
fluid, synovial fluid, as well as possible infected tissue. The
work here is mainly concerned with cultures, to look for
suspected pathogens which, if found, are further identified
based on biochemical tests. Also, sensitivity testing is
carried out to determine whether the pathogen is sensitive
or resistant to a suggested medicine. Results are reported
with the identified organism(s) and the type and amount of
drug(s) that should be prescribed for the patient.
Parasitology is a microbiology unit that investigates
parasites. The most frequently encountered specimen
here is faeces. However, blood, urine, sputum, and
other samples may also contain parasites.
Virology is concerned with identification of viruses in
specimens such as blood, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid.
Hematology works with whole blood to do full blood
counts, and blood films as well as many other specialised
tests.
Coagulation requires citrated blood samples to analyze
blood clotting times and coagulation factors.
Clinical Biochemistry usually receives serum or plasma.
They test the serum for chemicals present in blood. These
include a wide array of substances, such as lipids, blood
sugar, enzymes, and hormones.
Toxicology mainly tests for pharmaceutical and recreational
drugs. Urine and blood samples are submitted to this lab.
Immunology/Serology uses the concept of antigen-antibody
interaction as a diagnostic tool. Compatibility of
transplanted organs is also determined.
Immunohaematology, or Blood bank determines blood
groups, and performs compatibility testing on donor blood
and recipients. It also prepares blood components,
derivatives, and products for transfusion. Regulated by the
FDA since giving blood is considered a drug, this unit
determines a patient's blood type and Rh status, checks for
antibodies to common antigens found on red blood cells,
and cross matches units that are negative for the antigen.
Urinalysis tests urine for many analytes. Some health
care providers have a urinalysis laboratory, while
others don't. Instead, each component of the urinalysis
is performed at the corresponding unit. If measuring
urine chemicals is required, the specimen is processed
in the clinical biochemistry lab, but if cell studies are
indicated, the specimen should be submitted to the
cytopathology lab, and so on.
Histopathology processes solid tissue removed from the body
(biopsies) for evaluation at the microscopic level.
Cytopathology examines smears of cells from all over the
body (such as from the cervix) for evidence of inflammation,
cancer, and other conditions.
Electron microscopy prepares specimens and takes
micrographs of very fine details by means of TEM and SEM.
Genetics mainly performs DNA analysis.
Cytogenetics involves using blood and other cells to get a
karyotype. This can be helpful in prenatal diagnosis (e.g.
Down's syndrome) as well as in cancer (some cancers have
abnormal chromosomes).
Surgical pathology examines organs, limbs, tumors, fetuses,
and other tissues biopsied in surgery such as breast
mastectomys.
Types of laboratory
In many countries, there are two main types of labs that
process the majority of medical specimens.
Hospital laboratories are attached to a hospital, and perform
tests on patients.
Private (or community) laboratories receive samples from
general practitioners, insurance companies, clinical research
sites and other health clinics for analysis. These can also be
called reference laboratories where more unusual and
obscure tests are performed. For extremely specialised tests,
samples may go to a research laboratory. A lot of samples are
sent between different labs for uncommon tests. It is more
cost effective if a particular laboratory specializes in a rare
test, receiving specimens (and money) from other labs, while
sending away tests it cannot do.
In many countries there are mainly three types of Medical
Laboratories as per the types of investigations carried out.
1. Clinical Pathology
2. Clinical Microbiology &
3. Clinical Biochemistry laboratories.

1. Clinical Pathology:
Haematology, Histopathology, Cytology, Routine Pathology
2. Clinical Microbiology: Bacteriology, Mycobacteriology,
Virology, Mycology, Parasitology, Immunology, Serology.
3. Clinical Biochemistry: Biochemical analysis, Hormonal
assays etc.
Blood Banks:- Blood bank is a separate body. Its laboratory
need Microbiological analysis for infectious diseases that may
be found in blood. Pathology to observe Blood grouping,
Haematology & cross matching reactions. It also involves
PRO department for the communication & contact for blood
donations etc.. Molecular diagnostic lab or cytogenetics and
molecular biology lab is the latest addition to the three types
of medical laboratories listed above in many countries.
Medical Laboratory Technician role
In general, these people work in hospital or
laboratory settings and splurge most of their time in
lab coats, gloves, goggles and masks.
So taking extra safety precautions is a must because
laboratory setting means that medical lab techs are
open to the elements like bacteria and pathogens on
a regular basis.
Coming to the role of a medical lab tech, their run
tests and analyzes specimen samples to help
physicians in the diagnosis and treatment of patients.

Responsibilities of medical lab technicians
On any given day, a medical laboratory technician will
be responsible for:
Collecting blood or specimen samples from patients
Cleaning equipment and maintaining a sterile
laboratory environment
Logging patient samples and preparing them for
tests
Conducting routine tests and analyses of samples
Receiving tissue samples from patients
Setting up lab equipment

Medical Laboratory Technician Job Description
A medical laboratory technician usually begins the day by
setting up and adjusting lab equipment. Throughout the day,
their tasks include collecting and receiving blood, tissue, urine,
and other body fluid samples from patients. They are required
to prepare these samples for routine testing through a
microscope or automatic analyzer, which will give results
detecting any abnormalities or diseases. The results will then
be put into a computer for further analysis using graphs,
charts, tables, etc. Some samples may need to be stored under
controlled conditions for future use. At the end of the day, they
clean up the lab equipment in preparation for the next day.
A career as a medical laboratory technician can be rewarding,
but at the same time challenging. An individual must be able
to work well in a team that can include scientists and
physicians.
Detail-orientation and patience are important traits of this
profession. All information collected must follow the data
protection act and patient confidentiality practice.

The medical laboratory technician job description includes:
Keep the laboratory and all equipment clean
Prepare the laboratory equipment and specimens for tests
Collect patients body fluids for lab test and analysis
Analyze and record test results in order to issue reports that
utilize graphs, charts, and narratives
Perform blood counts and blood tests for transfusion
purposes
Assist medical laboratory technologists in less complex
laboratory tests and procedures
The Difference between skills and knowledge
Two words that describe a persons competence knowledge
and skill! At first glance, both of them seem synonymous but
give it some thought and you would realize both of them are
very different concepts.
Knowledge refers to learning concepts, principles and
information regarding a particular subject(s) by a person
through books, media, encyclopedias, academic institutions
and other sources. Skill refers to the ability of using that
information and applying it in a context. In other words,
knowledge refers to theory and skill refers to successfully
applying that theory in practice and getting expected results.
For instance, a sales person armed with an MBA degree
may have learned all the principles of marketing and selling in
his business school. Going forward, in his work he would know
more about his company, in the arena of its product line,
target market, competitors etc. All the above is knowledge.
Transferring this knowledge to create a successful sales
strategy and pitch and achieving those sales targets is the
sales persons skill.

Trial and error methods are a great way of adding to your
skills. Sometimes, certain skills are inherent in a person. For
instance, some people are born carpenters. But skills can take
a person only to a certain level. To move ahead, it is necessary
that a person has the requisite knowledge as well.
For instance, while a person may have a good hand in
carpentry, acquiring an engineering degree can do wonders for
the persons skills. In the same manner, some people may have
theoretical knowledge but may just not be able to use it while
performing a task.
From a philosophical perspective, knowledge is intangible but
skills can be made tangible by applying those skills to a context
and getting the desired result.
Also, theoretical knowledge can be shared with other people.
Some skills can never be transferred to other people. For
instance, a good car mechanic may immediately know a
problem with the car because of the intuitiveness he or she
has built over years of repairing different cars. The same car
mechanic may not be able to develop this intuitiveness in his
apprentice.
Laboratory Workplace
Skills
Culture, attitudes, and etiquette
Lab Culture
Happy Hour on Friday afternoons
For those looking for information on how our lab works and
what culture is promoted, the following provides a summary of
what you are trying to achieve.
The labs mission is the development of new tools for the
three-dimensional visualization of biological structures using
electron cryo-microscopy, and their application to solve
compelling biological questions. This defines the common goal
for all lab members who come from diverse backgrounds
including biology, biochemistry, chemistry, physics,
mathematics, computer science and engineering.
Although the lab is divided into wet and dry spaces (a fully
equipped biochemistry lab and offices with computer
workstations and access to the labs own computer cluster),
there is a constant and intimate exchange of ideas and
knowledge between all lab members. This means that
scientists with different training have ample opportunity to
learn from their colleagues and, in turn, pass on their own
expertise. The exchange of ideas is promoted by daily lunches
in our lunch room attended regularly by most lab members,
including the PI and members of other labs on the floor
(especially members of the Nicastro lab). Furthermore, once a
week, you hold a lab meeting to present data and discuss a
project.
Every Thusrday afternoon, you have Happy Hour with
drinks and snacks to help establish a friendly, trusting and
collegial atmosphere. Finally, you organize a monthly wide
meeting that is attended by members of all labs working in the
area of electron cryo-microscopy. The meeting is held in the
evening and is kept very informal to inspire a culture of
discussion rather than lecturing. The evening meetings are
followed by a reception with drinks and food to provide even
more opportunities to meet with and talk to other experts in
the area.
Training also includes electron microscopy and image
processing as every lab member is expected to collect their
own data and process it. Often, the different expertise of lab
members suggests collaboration on projects, which is
encouraged. Direct competition between lab members
working towards the same scientific goal is not permitted.
Creativity, independent thinking and curiosity are the most
valuable assets members can bring to the lab. However, this
must also be balanced with career perspectives and funding,
both of which depend strongly on scientific productivity
(publications). The generous and long-term funding provided
by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute allows lab members
to find their own balance and shape their profile.
It also enables the lab to purchase additional equipment for
new experiments. The freedom enjoyed by lab members also
means that each member is expected to be self-motivated and
independent, and to design and execute experiments as well
as write papers. Although employment does not depend on it,
new lab members are strongly encouraged to apply for
appropriate fellowships to support their salary. A fellowship
conveys additional independence and authority to members
to follow their own research interests, as long as these stay
within the general mission of the lab.
Lab members are also encouraged to attend conferences,
meetings, courses and workshops to present their work and
network with others in the field.
While everybody is expected to work as much as it takes to
complete a project, and to enable regular contact with other
lab members, there are no defined work hours in the lab. This
allows individual preferences for work hours and also helps
spread the load on instruments and equipment in the lab.
Lab resources are shared and lab members are expected to use
them with respect, care and a communal spirit. Each member
takes care of some assigned resources to help maintain a
smooth and professional operation of the lab.
Example:
The DePace Lab, In systems Biology
For me running a successful lab means not only meeting
scientific benchmarks getting tough experiments to work,
effectively communicating our results at meetings and in
papers, getting grants and securing my students and postdocs
their next positions but also doing science in a way that is
consistent with my values and what I enjoy. This makes the
process of doing science a joy so my satisfaction isnt only
dependent on getting good results. Ive found this to be
especially important because science is conducted in a highly
critical culture where the delays between successes can be
long and hard-won.
Here are a few things that I value very highly: a lack of
hierarchy, intellectual rigor, balance between work and other
aspects of life, clear communication, teaching, mentoring, and
a good sense of humor. I was incredibly lucky to have people
join our group who believe similarly, and weve developed a
lab culture that reflects those values, among others. It was
one of the most satisfying moments of my career so far to
have the students in my lab nominate me for a mentoring
award, so you must be doing something right.
JOURNAL CLUB FORMAT
you have journal club every week, over tea and snacks. Our
goal is to survey the literature relevant to our work. you start
the discussion by going around the table each person says
in a few sentences what they liked and didnt like about the
paper, and one point for discussion, which is written on the
board.
After you get all the way through the group, you look
over the topics to prioritize them. This format has a few
advantages. First, it requires everyone to participate, both by
reading the paper and offering up an opinion and a discussion
topic. Second, it keeps our discussion focused on only the
most relevant parts of the paper, so you save time. Third, the
list on the board allows the moderator to manage the
discussion easily by making sure that you cover all topics.
GROUP MEETING FORMAT
The goal of our group meeting is for the presenter to get
useful ideas from the group, not to summarize progress.
Everyone starts their group meeting by stating what their goal
for the meeting is, and which aspects they would like for
people to focus on.
Lab members can present the current state of their
project, a paper thats relevant for their work, an upcoming
talk, or brainstorm about the structure of their upcoming
paper or grant. Its informal sometimes people use slides,
sometimes they just use the whiteboard.
GIVING FEEDBACK
Our profession requires us to evaluate one anothers work
rigorously, and in a wide variety of circumstances such as
papers, grants and presentations. Devoting time and attention
to give feedback is generous, but giving and receiving feedback
can be emotionally difficult if its perceived as aggressive or
dismissive. you strive to give specific, productive feedback to
each other and our colleagues the type of feedback that you
would most like to receive yourself.
These guidelines are sometimes helpful:
1) describe something the author/presenter should keep;
2) describe something the author/presenter should throw
away;
3) describe something the author/presenter should improve.
Its also useful to think about separating your comments about
the content of the work (the ideas and data), from the
presentation of the work (how they were communicated,
verbally or graphically).
ANNUAL PLANNING MEETINGS
At the beginning of every calendar year, you have one-on-one
planning meetings. The goal for these meetings is to review
goals from the previous year, celebrate what was accomplished,
figure out how to accomplish what was left undone, and to set
new goals for the upcoming year.
Making goals concrete, writing them down, and
reviewing them gives everyone a chance to see how far
theyve come, and also to remind ourselves of things that may
have slipped by the wayside. Informal follow-up meetings
throughout the year help to prioritize time and solve pressing
technical or conceptual issues.
LAB RETREAT AND PORTRAITS
At the end of the year, right before the winter holidays, you
have a lab retreat and take an annual lab portrait. I must
admit that taking goofy group photos was a long-held dream
of mine, which my graduate school lab finally indulged the
year I graduated. When I started my own group, everyone was
happily game. But it has taken on a life of its own as a favorite
lab tradition. you come up with ideas for months beforehand,
and you dont shoot anything down.
I learned this way of brainstorming while doing improv
comedy at Yale sometimes its called the Yes, and rule, to
contrast it with a negative response such as No, but. You can
see the results of never saying no in the unicorn t-shirt photo,
which started out being just about bad shirts, but then also
ended up being about high-school stereotypes, and Sherlock
Holmes.
COMMUNAL SPACE
Our space was remodeled to my specifications in 2008 and
was actually the first LEED certified lab at Harvard. Our lab
includes wet lab benches and desks, a light and airy
computational room, and a break room as an integral part of
the lab. The fact that there are big windows from the
computational space to the wet lab makes those two spaces
feel connected, rather than isolated from one another.
The break room is surrounded by whiteboards, has space
for making tea, and a table where you hold journal club, do
crosswords and celebrate birthdays. Because its on the corner
with windows looking into the hallway, people from other labs
can also see when were in there and stop by for a visit.
What you need?
1. You want a healthcare career with little patient contact
Medical lab techs work mainly, but not completely, behind-
the-scenes. Youll obviously have close patient contact when
youre collecting samples, including urine and blood, Renner
says. But apart from that, youre in the lab analyzing and
testing fluids and tissues trying to determine the cause of a
patients illness. And limited patient contact doesnt
necessarily mean youll work traditional workdays. According
to Renner, MLTs are needed at all hours of the day in all types
of medical facilities.
Patients are there 24/7, she says. They dont get well
on the weekends, and they dont get well when you want to
go home.
2. Youre flexible and good at multi-tasking
On any given day youll run multiple tests on multiple
machines for multiple patients. Based on what the doctor
requests, you might: check someones white blood count, run
a pregnancy test, conduct a urinalysis, look for elevated
enzymes after a heart attack or any of the other things that
are within your scope of practice.
Whether its in an emergency room [or] whether its in a
clinic, you will continually run those samples until the end of
the day, Renner says. Of course, your daily duties will depend
somewhat on the facility in which youre employed. For
instance, smaller hospitals will definitely test your multi-
tasking skills thanks to fewer employees.
You are the med tech, you are the phlebotomist and
you might even learn how to do other things, like X-rays,
Renner says.

3. You have strong communication skills
MLTs need excellent communication skills, Renner says. Even
though the majority of your work will be completed in a lab,
youre still part of a medical team. This will require you to
consult with a variety of people throughout the course of your
day. Whether youre working with patients, explaining
procedures to their families, comparing notes with your
colleagues or reporting test results to doctors, strong
communication skills are paramount in this profession.
It is particularly important that you convey accurate results to
doctors.
Miscommunication can result in a misdiagnosis, which is
inconvenient at best and a malpractice lawsuit at worst.
4. Youre interested in science
MLTs usually have a strong background in chemistry, biology
and physiology. Specifically, knowledge of tissues and cells is
required, as is an expert understanding of chemical
compositions and interactions.
For people who want to be an MLT, this kind of knowledge is
exciting. Renner says most want to know what type of
organism has infected a person and, more importantly, which
antibiotic will help destroy it.
But dont worry, youre not expected to be a science expert
right away thats why youll take classes focusing on these
issues.
Lab Attitude
The workers in laboratories generally are faced with many
occupational risk at work and his/her health and safety may be
severely jeopardized if adequate preventive protective
measures are not taken. These hazards can be physical,
chemical and biological. The prevention of occupational
hazards in laboratories requires a thorough knowledge of the
risks and practical measures to be taken1. Laboratory workers
should familiarize themselves with universal work
precautions, as defined by Center for Disease Control, are a set
of precautions designed to prevent transmission of Human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and
other blood borne infections when pro-viding first aid or health
care. Under universal work precautions, blood and certain body
fluids of all patients are considered potentially infectious for
HIV, HBV and other blood borne pathogens2.
Universal work precautions apply to blood, other body
fluids containing visible blood, semen, and vaginal secretions.
Universal work precautions also apply to tissues and to the
following fluids: cerebrospinal, synovial, pleural, peritoneal,
pericardial, and amniotic fluids. Universal work precautions do
not apply to faeces, nasal secretions, sputum, sweat, tears, urine,
and vomitus unless they contain visible blood.
Universal work precautions do not apply to saliva except when
visibly contaminated with blood or in the dental setting where
blood contamination of saliva is predictable. Universal work
precautions involve the use of protective barriers such as gloves,
gowns, aprons, masks, or protective eyewear, which can reduce
the risk of the health care workers skin or mucous membranes
to potentially infective materials. In addition, it is recommended
that all health care workers take precautions to prevent injuries
caused by needles, scalpels,and other sharp instruments/devices.
Laboratory technicians are exposed to a large pool of
specimens from patients suffering from infections such as HBV
and HIV3,4. However, they seem to have a poor perception of
the risk of infections and are not compliant with the basic
principles of universal work precautions5,6. This system of
infection control is, therefore , very important if the risk of
transmission of infections in the laboratory is to be minimized,
as they may not be aware of the outcome of blood and fluid
specime/ns until they are investigated or contaminated
instruments in the laboratory.
Lab Etiquette
The lab techs that are teaching in the clinical lab will often
have patient work to complete while they are teaching.
Therefore, they need your attention in order to effectively
teach you and complete their work. When I talk about lab
etiquette, I am mainly talking about cell phone use. Med.
Tech. students should not be using their cell phones in the lab.
First, it is impolite to text while someone is teaching you and
you cannot concentrate on two things at once. While you are
working on instruments your full attention is needed and you
cannot be distracted by a cell phone. Even if you are not
working on an instrument, you still need your full attention on
your training. This year is the hardest and most intense year
of your education and it is the most comprehensive
preparation for the registry.
Once you start working, you will not use your theory
nearly as much as you do during your clinical rotation. The lab
techs will take into consideration the fact that you might be
waiting to hear for a job offer. You just need to mention it to
them and they wont mind if you take a call. This should be a
rare occurrence, though.
Dress Codes
There is a dress code in the laboratory. The female employees
are required to wear scrubs and the male employees wear
dress pants, a dress shirt, and a tie. The students are required
to wear dress pants and the Med. Tech. student polo shirts.
Your shoes should impervious to fluids and have a back on
them. Cloth shoes should not be worn because of the chance
of spilling blood or body fluids on them. You would not want
to get blood or body fluids on your feet. This is the dress code
for our laboratory; it may be different at other laboratories. If
you find a different dress code please share it with us in the
comment section.
Lab Safety
In the laboratory you work with a lot of potentially infectious
samples and all samples are treated as such. All lab techs are
required to wear disposable lab coats. Technologists are also
required to wear gloves when handling potentially infectious
specimens. When you are wearing your gloves you should not
be touching your face, your hair, or your cell phone, because
once you have touched specimens you do not know what is on
your gloves. I would consider most every surface in a
laboratory to be dirty. Think of it this way; would you want to
set your lunch box on a counter in the laboratory and then set
it on your kitchen table where you eat? I sometimes see
students chewing on a pen.
That is definitely something that you should avoid. Also, food
and drink are prohibited in the laboratory work areas. You are
only allowed to have food and drink in designated areas, such
as the staff lounge.
Years ago, before there was information available about the
hazards of handling specimens, the practices were very
different. Techs did not wear gloves and mouth pipetting was a
common practice. Then with the discovery of the transmission
mode of AIDS and HIV and other infectious diseases, a lot of
the regulations changed. Techs were then required to wear
gloves and other personal protective equipment.
This was hard for some of the older techs and I still
occasionally see a few handling specimens without gloves on.
The laboratory is a safe place to work as long as you wear your
personal protective equipment and take the proper
precautions.
Safety
Types of Safety Hazards
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
The Chain of Infection
Source (patient specimens with HCV,
HIV, ..etc.)



Method of transmission



Susceptible host
Chain of infection and safety practices related
to the biohazard symbol.
Hand washing
Hand contact represents the number-one method
of infection transmission.
Hands should always be washed at the following
times:
before patient contact
when gloves are removed
prior to leaving the work area
whenever the hands have been knowingly contaminated
before going to designated break areas
before and after using bathroom facilities.
Correct routine hand washing
technique
1. Wet hands with warm water.
2. Apply soap, preferably antimicrobial.
3. Rub to form a lather, create friction, and loosen debris.
4. Clean thoroughly between fingers, thumbs, and under
fingernails and rings for at least 15 seconds and up to the
wrist.
5. Rinse hands in a downward position.
6. Dry hands with a paper towel.
7. Turn off faucets with a clean paper towel to prevent
recontamination.

Personal Protective Equipment
- Gloves
- Fluid-resistant laboratory coats
- Goggles
- Full-face plastic shield
- Plexiglas countertop shields

Personal Protective Equipment
Gloves:
are worn to protect the health-care workers hands from
contamination by:
Blood Body fluid
Secretions Excretions
Contaminated items

and to protect the patient from possible microorganisms on
the health-care workers hands.
Wearing gloves is not a substitute for hand washing.
Hands must always be washed when gloves are removed.
A variety of gloves are available, including:

sterile and nonsterile
powdered and unpowdered
latex and nonlatex
Allergy to latex is increasing among health-
care workers.
Laboratorians should be alert for symptoms
of reactions associated with latex contact.
irritant contact dermatitis (patches of dry, itchy
irritation on the hands)
delayed hypersensitivity reactions (24 to 48
hours following exposure)
Immediate hypersensitivity reactions (facial
flushing and respiratory difficulty)

Latex Gloves Allergy
As many as 1 in 6 health
professionals may be
affected.
Latex Gloves Allergy
Natural rubber latex (NRL) gloves are made
from the milk-like fluid obtained from
Hevea brasiliensis, the rubber tree
NRL contains many proteins, including
hevamine, hevein and (REF) rubber
elongation factor
Various chemicals are added during
manufacture to provide strength, elasticity
and stability
Some NRL gloves add corn starch powder
to prevent stickiness and aid donning
Latex Gloves Allergy
Constituents of a NRL glove can cause
two types of reactions . . .
Allergic reactions (Type I and/or Type
IV)
an excessive immune response caused by
external agents such as NRL proteins
and chemicals
Irritant reactions
do not involve the immune system they
are caused by localised physical
damage by irritants such as glove
powder
Latex Gloves Allergy - Prevalence

Latex Allergy Amongst Healthcare
Professionals


POPULATION PREVALENCE
Nurses 8 20%
Physicians
(surgeons)

7.5 10%
Laboratory
personnel

10%
BY ALLERGY TYPE
Latex Gloves Allergy - Mechanisms
Pathogenesis of Physical Urticaria
( hypersensitive vascular nervous system)

Latex Gloves Allergy - Mechanisms
Pathogenesis of Acute Immunological Urticaria
( IgE-dependent Type I Allergic Reaction)


Sensitized individuals may
develop cross-reactivity with
fruits and vegetables which
have molecular structures
similar to latex e.g : Avocado,
Banana,, Kiwi, Tomato, Potato

Approximately
60% of latex allergic
individuals will go
on to develop fruit
allergies
Latex Gloves Allergy - Mechanisms
Pathogenesis of Acute Immunological Urticaria
( IgE-dependent Type I Allergic Reaction)
A range of symptoms can occur within minutes
(immediate reaction):
- Contact urticaria
- Rhinoconjunctivitis
- Respiratory (asthma, bronchospasm)
- Life-threatening anaphylaxis in extreme cases



Symptoms normally resolve rapidly when exposure ceases



Personal Protective Equipment
Fluid-resistant laboratory coats

Protect skin
Prevent soiling of clothing during:
Procedures
Patient-care activities that are likely to generate
splashes of :
Blood
Body fluids
Secretions
Excretions


Personal Protective Equipment
Goggles, Full-face plastic shield, Plexiglas countertop
shields
Protect mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth
during:
Procedures
Patient-care activities that are likely to generate
splashes or sprays of:
Blood
Body fluids
Secretions
Excretions


Occupational Health and Bloodborne Pathogens
Take care to prevent injuries when using needles,
scalpels, and other sharp instruments.

Never recap used needles or otherwise manipulate
them using both hands.

Never use any technique that involves directing the
point of a needle toward any part of the body.

Use either a one-handed scoop technique or a
mechanical device designed for holding the needle
sheath.

Occupational Health and Bloodborne Pathogens
Place used disposable syringes and needles, scalpel
blades, and other sharp items in appropriate
puncture-resistant containers
Occupational Health and Bloodborne Pathogens
Proper needle disposal Improper needle disposal
Biological Waste Disposal
All biological waste, except urine, must be placed in
appropriate containers labeled with the biohazard
symbol.
This includes specimens and the materials with which
the specimens come in contact.
Any supplies contaminated with blood and body fluids
must also be disposed of in containers clearly marked
with the biohazard symbol or with red or yellow color-
coding.
This includes alcohol pads, gauze, bandages, disposable
tourniquets, gloves, masks, gowns, and plastic tubes
and pipettes.
Biological Waste Disposal
Contaminated non-disposable equipment, blood spills,
and blood and body fluid processing areas must be
disinfected.

The most commonly used disinfectant is a 1:10 dilution
of sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) prepared
weekly and stored in a plastic, not a glass, bottle.

The bleach should be allowed to air-dry on the
contaminated area prior to removal.
Occupational Exposure to Bloodborne
Pathogens
Any accidental exposure to blood through:
Needle stick
Mucous membranes
Non intact skin
A confidential medical examination must be
immediately started.
Evaluation of the incident must begin right away to
ensure appropriate postexposure prophylaxis (pep).
Needle sticks are the most frequently encountered
exposure and place the laboratorian in danger of
contracting HIV, HBV, and hepatitis c virus (HCV).
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
General Precautions

Avoid getting chemicals on your body, clothes, and
work area.

Wearing safety goggles when pouring chemicals

Observing strict labeling practices; and following
instructions carefully.

Preparing reagents under a fume hood.
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
General Precautions
Chemicals should never be mixed together, unless specific
instructions are followed, and they must be added in the order
specified.
This is particularly important when combining acid and water,
as acid should always be added to water to avoid the
possibility of sudden splashing.
When skin or eye contact occurs, the best first aid is to
immediately flush the area with water for at least 15 minutes
and then seek medical attention.
Laboratorians must know the location of the emergency
shower and eyewash station in the laboratory.
Do not try to neutralize chemicals spilled on the skin.
Material Safety Data Sheets
All chemicals and reagents containing hazardous ingredients
in a concentration greater than 1 percent are required to
have a material safety data sheet (MSDS) on file in the work
area.
An MSDS contains information on physical and chemical
characteristics, fire, explosion reactivity, health hazards,
primary routes of entry, exposure limits and carcinogenic
potential, precautions for safe handling, spill cleanup, and
emergency first aid.
Containers of chemicals that pose a high risk must be
labeled with a chemical hazard symbol representing the
possible hazard, such as flammable, poisonous, corrosive,
and so on.
Chemical Waste Disposal


Many kits used in testing contain sodium azide, which
can be disposed of by flushing down the drain with
plenty of water to avoid buildup in plumbing.
RADIOACTIVE HAZARDS
General Precautions

Radioactivity is encountered in the clinical
laboratory when procedures using radioisotopes,
such as radioimmunoassay, are performed.

The amount of radioactivity present in most
medical situations is very small and represents little
danger
RADIOACTIVE HAZARDS
The effects of radiation are related to the length of
exposure and are cumulative.

Exposure to radiation is dependent on the
combination of time, distance, and shielding.

Persons working in a radioactive environment are
required to wear measuring devices to determine
the amount of radiation they are accumulating.

RADIOACTIVE HAZARDS
Laboratorians should be familiar with the radioactive
symbol.

This symbol must be displayed on the doors of all
areas where radioactive material is present.

Exposure to radiation during
pregnancy presents a danger to the
fetus.

Personnel who are or who think they
may be pregnant should avoid areas
with this symbol.

Designing for safety
Facility design
Water supply/sinks for hand washing
Ventilation
Personal protective equipment (PPE)
Biosafety cabinets for product, personal
and environmental protection



Biosafety Level 1
Standard Microbiological Practices
Restrict or limit access
when working
Prohibit eating, drinking
and smoking in the
laboratory
Pipetting by mouth
strictly forbidden
Biosafety Level 1
Standard Microbiological Practices

Biological safety cabinet - class I


Standard practices also include:
Keep work areas uncluttered and clean
No food in lab refrigerator
Minimize splashes and aerosols
Decontaminate work surfaces daily
Maintain insect & rodent control program
Biosafety Level 2
Safety Equipment (Primary Barriers)
In addition to BSL-1:

Use biosafety cabinets (class II) for work with
infectious agents involving:
Aerosols and splashes
Large volumes
High concentrations
Biological safety cabinet - class II
Biosafety Level 2
Facility Design (Secondary Barriers)
Requirements:
Laboratories have lockable doors
Sink for hand washing
Work surfaces easily cleaned
Bench tops are impervious to water
Sturdy furniture

Biosafety Level 2
Laboratory Facilities (Secondary Barriers)
BSL-1 Facilities PLUS:
Autoclave available
Eyewash station
available
Requirements:
Location - separated from public areas
Structure - normal construction
Ventilation - directional
Biosafety Level 2
Facility Construction (Secondary Barrier)
Biosafety Level 2
Special Practices
Needles & Sharps Precautions
Use sharps containers
DONT break, bend, re-sheath or reuse
syringes or needles
2.4
Needles & sharps precautions
DONT place needles or sharps in office
waste containers


Biosafety Level 2
Special Practices
Biosafety Level 2
Special Practices
Needles and Sharps Precautions (cont.)
DONT touch broken glass with hands
Identify clean and contaminated areas
Use appropriate warning signs

Decontaminate work surfaces

Report spills and accidents

Remove gloves, lab coats before leaving
work area

No animals in laboratories
Biosafety Level 2
Special Practices
Biosafety Level 3
Safety Equipment (Primary Barriers)
BSL-1 and 2 Safety Equipment PLUS:
BSC class
II or III to
manipulate
infectious
material
Biological safety cabinet class III
Biosafety Level 3
Safety Equipment (Primary Barriers)
BSL-1 and 2 Safety Equipment PLUS:
Respiratory protection may be indicated
Biosafety Level 3
Laboratory Facilities (Secondary Barriers)
BSL-1 and 2 Facilities PLUS:
Separate building or isolated zone
Double door entry
Directional inward airflow
Single-pass air; 10-12 air changes/hour
Biosafety Level 3
Laboratory Facilities (Secondary Barriers)
BSL-1 and 2 Facilities PLUS (contd):
Enclosures for aerosol generating equipment
Room penetrations sealed
Walls, floors and ceilings are water resistant
for easy cleaning
BSL-2 Special Practices PLUS:
Work in certified BSC
Use bioaerosol-
containing equipment
Decontaminate spills
promptly
Biosafety Level 3
Special Practices
Biosafety Level 4 Maximum
Containment
BSL -3 practices plus:
Clothing change before entering laboratory
Shower on exit
All materials decontaminated on exit from facility


Safety Equipment:
Class III Biosafety cabinet
Class I or II biosafety cabinet
with full-body, air supplied, positive personnel suit
Biological Waste
Types
cultures, stocks, isolates
materials containing or contaminated with blood
sharps
pipettes, wrappers, tips
All materials used in the lab


Specimen Disposal

Decontamination
Sterilization
Disinfection
General Lab Use - Hypochlorite Solutions

Large Spills/Large Organic Load
undiluted from bottle

Small Spills/Virus Inactivation
10% - 1:9

General Surface Disinfection
1% - 1:99
Decontamination
Chemical
Handling specimens and spills
All specimens should be considered as potentially
dangerous
Specimens should be in well sealed, leak proof, solid
containers
Wear gloves and cover abrasions/cuts on hands
Requisition forms that are blood stained should be
rejected and handled with gloved hands
Wash hands thoroughly several times in a day with soap
and water
Spills : Place a newspaper on the spill. After it gets
soaked, pour 1% -5% hypochlorite on it and leave it for 10
minutes. Then mop the area with disinfectant

Decontamination
Methods
Heat
Chemical
Radiation
Chemical hazards
Label lab chemicals with their hazard classification
irritant, corrosive, flammable, carcinogen etc
Store reactive chemicals seperately ( acids x bases,
oxidizers x reducing agents). Flammables are stored in
flamable safe cabinets
Use of carcinogens / toxic chemicals to be used only
by trained personnel and in designated area
Chemical hygiene plan, engineering and work practice
controls, exposure monitoring and waste
management
Physical hazards
Fire
Electrical accidents shock, short circuit
Noise levels
Equipment accident slipping, breaking,
falling
UV light exposure
Compressed gases
Work stress
Radiation hazards
Type of radiation , or , quantity and
source of exposure (internal /external)
Time, distance, shielding engineering and
work practice controls
(designated areas, lead aprons, monitoring
badges)
Routine safety precautions
Centrifugation
Check tubes/vials for cracks
Properly balanced
Wait for a complete stop
In case of breakage, clean the buckets with
disinfectant
For infectious agents, seal the tubes



Electrical safety
Must know master switches and circuit breaker
boards
Plugs/ cords in worn or broken conditions X dont
use
All electrical equipment must be grounded
All shocks to be investigated

Corridor cautions
Swinging doors ; should open into corridors
Use only one side of corridor for storage of
equipment
Look for spills, glass etc on the floors
Always walk, never run
Lab Ethics
Various value problems arise in connection with the clinical
examination of patients. First, conflicts
can be caused by different opinions about the risks and
benefits of the examination and about the rights and duties of
those involved: patients, relatives, professionals, health care
organisers and society. Second, the examination of patients
involves value dilemmas concerning deeper life convictions.
The rights of the deceased and of laboratory patients have also
become topics of ethical discussion.
Code of Ethics
The Code of Ethics of the American Society for Clinical
Laboratory Science sets forth the principles and standards by
which clinical laboratory professionals practice their
profession.
I. Duty to the Patient
Clinical laboratory professionals are accountable for the
quality and integrity of the laboratory services they provide.
This obligation includes maintaining individual competence in
judgement and performance and striving to safeguard the
patient from incompetent or illegal practice by others.
Clinical laboratory professionals maintain high standards of
practice. They exercise sound judgment in establishing,
performing and evaluating laboratory testing.
Clinical laboratory professionals maintain strict confidentiality
of patient information and test results. They safeguard the
dignity and privacy of patients and provide accurate
information to other health care professionals about the
services they provide.
II. Duty to Colleagues and the Profession
Clinical laboratory professionals uphold and maintain the
dignity and respect of our profession and strive to maintain a
reputation of honesty, integrity and reliability. They contribute
to the advancement of the profession by improving the body
of knowledge, adopting scientific advances that benefit the
patient, maintaining high standards of practice and education,
and seeking fair socioeconomic working conditions for
members of the profession.
Clinical laboratory professionals actively strive to establish
cooperative and respectful working relationships with other
health care professionals with the primary objective of
ensuring a high standard of care for the patients they serve.
III. Duty to Society
As practitioners of an autonomous profession, clinical
laboratory professionals have the responsibility to contribute
from their sphere of professional competence to the general
well being of the community.
Clinical laboratory professionals comply with relevant laws
and regulations pertaining to the practice of clinical laboratory
science and actively seek, within the dictates of their
consciences, to change those which do not meet the high
standards of care and practice to which the profession is
committed.
Pledge to the Profession
As a clinical laboratory professional:
Maintain and promote standards of excellence in
performing and advancing the art and science of my
profession.
Preserve the dignity and privacy of others.
Uphold and maintain the dignity and respect of our
profession.
Seek to establish cooperative and respectful working
relationships with other health professionals.
Contribute to the general well being of the community.
Communication Skills
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND COMMUNICATIONS
Demonstrated both verbal and nonverbal expressions of
cooperation and respect
with patients, peers, supervisors, and teachers.
Exhibited a neat, clean, appropriately dressed, and
professional appearance;
Expressed self well, verbally and non-verbally. Reports were
accurate and legible;
Maintained technical competency and emotional stability in
times of tension or stress;
Dealt with patients in a professional, cooperative,
empathetic manner;
Effectively communicated instructions, questions, etc. to
fellow workers and patients so that he/she was easily
understood.
How to Develop Good Communication Skills?
The ability to communicate effectively is important in
relationships, education and work. Here are some steps and
tips to help you develop good communication skills.
1- Know what communication really is. Communication is the
process of transferring signals/messages between a sender and
a receiver through various methods (written words, nonverbal
cues, spoken words). It is also the mechanism we use to
establish and modify relationships.
2- Have courage to say what you think . Be confident in
knowing that you can make worthwhile contributions to
conversation. Take time each day to be aware of your opinions
and feelings so you can adequately convey them to others.
Individuals who are hesitant to speak because they do not feel
their input would be worthwhile need not fear. What is
important or worthwhile to one person may not be to another
and may be more so to someone else.
3- Practice. Developing advanced communication skills begins
with simple interactions. Communication skills can be
practiced every day in settings that range from the social to the
professional. New skills take time to refine, but each time you
use your communication skills, you open yourself to
opportunities and future partnerships.
Part 2 of 4: Engage Your Audience
1- Make eye contact. Whether you are speaking or listening,
looking into the eyes of the person with whom you are
conversing can make the interaction more successful. Eye
contact conveys interest and encourages your partner to be
interested in you in return.
One technique to help with this is to consciously look into one
of the listeners eyes and then move to the other eye. Going
back and forth between the two makes your eyes appear to
sparkle. Another trick is to imagine a letter T on the
listeners face ,with the cross bar being an imaginary line
across the eye brows and the vertical line coming down the
center of the nose. Keep your eyes scanning that T zone.
2- Use gestures. These include gestures with your hands and
face. Make your whole body talk. Use smaller gestures for
individuals and small groups. The gestures should get larger as
the group that one is addressing increases in size.
3- Dont send mixed messages. Make your words, gestures,
facial expressions and tone match. Disciplining someone while
smiling sends a mixed message and is therefore ineffective. If
you have to deliver a negative message, make your words,
facial expressions, and tone match the message.
4- Be aware of what your body is saying. Body language can
say so much more than a mouthful of words. An open stance
with arms relaxed at your sides tells anyone around you that
you are approachable and open to hearing what they have to
say.
Arms crossed and shoulders hunched, on the other hand,
suggest disinterest in conversation or unwillingness to
communicate. Often, communication can be stopped before it
starts by body language that tells people you don't want to
talk.
Appropriate posture and an approachable stance can make
even difficult conversations flow more smoothly.
5- Manifest constructive attitudes and beliefs. The attitudes
you bring to communication will have a huge impact on the
way you compose yourself and interact with others. Choose to
be honest, patient, optimistic, sincere, respectful, and
accepting of others. Be sensitive to other people's feelings,
and believe in others' competence.
6- Develop effective listening skills: Not only should one be
able to speak effectively, one must listen to the other person's
words and engage in communication on what the other
person is speaking about. Avoid the impulse to listen only for
the end of their sentence so that you can blurt out the ideas or
memories your mind while the other person is speaking.
Part 3 of 4: Use Your Words
1- Enunciate your words. Speak clearly and dont mumble. If
people are always asking you to repeat yourself, try to do a
better job of articulating yourself in a better manner.
2- Pronounce your words correctly. People will judge your
competency through your vocabulary. If you arent sure of
how to say a word, dont use it.
3- Use the right words. If youre not sure of the meaning of a
word, dont use it. Grab a dictionary and start a daily habit of
learning one new word per day. Use it sometime in your
conversations during the day.
4- Slow your speech down. People will perceive you as
nervous and unsure of yourself if you talk fast. However, be
careful not to slow down to the point where people begin to
finish your sentences just to help you finish.
Part 4 of 4: Use Your Voice
1- Develop your voice. A high or whiny voice is not perceived
to be one of authority. In fact, a high and soft voice can make
you sound like prey to an aggressive co-worker or make others
not take you seriously. Begin doing exercises to lower the pitch
of your voice.
2- Animate your voice. Avoid a monotone and use dynamics.
Your pitch should raise and lower periodically. Radio DJ's are
usually a good example of this.
3- Use appropriate volume. Use a volume that is appropriate
for the setting. Speak more softly when you are alone and
close. Speak louder when you are speaking to larger groups or
across larger spaces.
Developing oral skills
Oral Communication is the ability to talk with others to give
and exchange information & ideas, such as: ask questions,
give directions, coordinate work tasks, explain & persuade.
How we use this skill
greeting people and taking messages
reassuring, comforting or persuading
seeking information & resolving conflicts
facilitating or leading a group
Training can deliver unanticipated positive results
Within the extremely competitive call centre industry, one
local company frequently reviews staff training needs as part
of its goal of continuous improvement. Even though there
were no glaring performance concerns, the company decided
to include Essential Skills training for their new hires.
A needs assessment determined that effective call centre
work requires a full range of oral communication skills,
including speaking with confidence and providing clear and
concise information using listening, questioning, reiteration
and problem-solving skills.
Unexpectedly, incorporating Essential Skills into the existing
training for new hires resulted in a decrease in customer
dissatisfaction rates. Company officials were doubly pleased
because increased customer satisfaction is often associated
with higher employee satisfaction and retention.
How to Improve Verbal Communication Skills
Today, good verbal communication is required in almost
every field of life, whether its for job or to flatter a woman.
Well its not that difficult. The art of communication [effective
communication] is too simple. Lets have a look at few points
which should be kept in mind.
Steps
1- Be sure of yourself. You should be confident before you
start talking.
2- Make some mental notes first. You should be prepared
about what you are going to talk about. There must be a
relation between your mind and your words. It would not
look good if you stop between a conversation and start to
think.
3- Be concise and clear. Do not add irrelevant stuff in your
speech.
4- Read a lot. If you have knowledge you can talk about
anything and every thing.
5- Try to add humor. But it should be up to the mark. Vulgar
jokes can be a great turn off.
6- Relax. Your body language should be relaxed. You should
not stiffen up. Do not speak in hurry, as it will make the
listener think that you are confused or you have cramped the
speech.
7- Make eye contact. It is so important. But if you are facing a
crowd you should not look at one for more than 5 seconds.
Developing written skills
Writing is the ability to use the written word to create a clear
message. It includes non paper-based writing such as typing
on a computer. We use this skill when we organize, record,
document, provide information to persuade, request
information from others and justify a request.
How we use this skill
organizing, recording or documenting
providing information to persuade
requesting information or justifying a request
presenting an analysis or comparison
Brief, targeted training can have a big impact
A manufacturing company recently adopted a commitment to
promoting from within to fi ll vacant supervisor and
management positions. Employees previously working in
operations made the move to these senior positions but the
company soon discovered a problem with their written
communications skills.
These rising stars had superb technical knowledge but
struggled with spelling, grammar, punctuation and clear
writing. This resulted in reports and documents that frustrated
the reader, were difficult to understand and carried the
potential for costly or even tragic errors.
How to Develop Your Writing Skills
Here are a few tips and tricks you can use to develop your
writing skills and create a great piece of work. Whether you're
writing an essay, a short story or a magazine article, it's
essential that you're able to clearly communicate your ideas to
your readers.
Steps
1- Use a variety of writing sources. The sources can help you
develop your writing skills, some are very common and some
you may have not even considered. For example, many major
cities have selective courses based around both business
writing and creative writing. I personally am from Sydney,
Australia and there are several schools designated purely for
writing techniques and styles that will aid you in the long run.
2-Build your repertoire! There is a very simple way to do this,
as stated in the main article, your thesaurus. It's built in to
most of the major word processing software and can be
accessed with a couple of buttons, but believe me when I say,
it knows what you want.
3- Using the Internet is also another collective source of
writing techniques, and they're not hard to find. Right now
you're reading what I have written in an article and although I
don't have to use big or fancy words to get my point across
this is still definitely one of the many writing skills out there.
Some other places to search are news articles, even reviews of
movies or television shows.
4- Develop confidence. If you don't have confidence there is
no need to worry, it may be easier to come by than you think.
I always think one important thing to myself, "I could have
written that." Think to yourself when reading one of those
news articles, someone got paid to write what your reading.
Why can't you be paid to write something someone else is
reading?
5- Do some research. This important step is necessary to give
your writing some added value for your readers. While it may
not be the most fun aspect of writing, it is something that
every writer should be willing to do. Whether you are a
weekend book reviewer or a corporate speech writer, your
readers will certainly recognize your hard work and quality
writing.
6- Take breaks if necessary. To combat stress, fatigue or writer's
block, it helps to step away for a moment. Fresh air, a glass of
water or a new cup of coffee could provide you with a clear
approach to your writing.
Time and Energy
Management
Energy management
It includes planning and operation of energy-related
production and consumption units. Objectives are resource
conservation, climate protection and cost savings, while the
users have permanent access to the energy they need. It is
connected closely to environmental management, production
management, logistics and other established business
functions. The VDI-Guideline 4602 released a definition which
includes the economic dimension: Energy management is the
proactive, organized and systematic coordination of
procurement, conversion, distribution and use of energy to
meet the requirements, taking into account environmental and
economic objectives.
Time management
It is the act or process of planning and exercising conscious
control over the amount of time spent on specific activities,
especially to increase effectiveness, efficiency or productivity.
It is a meta-activity with the goal to maximize the overall
benefit of a set of other activities within the boundary
condition of a limited amount of time. Time management may
be aided by a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to
manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects, and
goals complying with a due date. Initially, time management
referred to just business or work activities, but eventually the
term broadened to include personal activities as well. A time
management system is a designed combination of processes,
tools, techniques, and methods. Time management is usually
a necessity in any project development as it determines the
project completion time and scope.
The major themes arising from the literature on time
management include the following:
Creating an environment conducive to effectiveness
Setting of priorities
Carrying out activity around those priorities
The related process of reduction of time spent on non-
priorities
Time management has been considered to be a subset of
different concepts such as:
Project management. Time Management can be considered
to be a project management subset and is more commonly
known as project planning and project scheduling. Time
Management has also been identified as one of the core
functions identified in project management.
Attention management: It relates to the management
of cognitive resources, and in particular the time that
humans allocate their mind (&organize the minds of their
employees) to conduct activities.
Personal knowledge management
How To Get Things Done Time and Energy Management
Dont fall prey to the lure of procrastination. Procrastination,
simply put, is the habit of putting off a task for a later
time. Unfortunately, the result is usually a session of
rushed work at the last minute, and frantic minutes
hurriedly trying to accomplish tasks which would have
otherwise been done already had it not been for the
delay. Students in particular are familiar with cramming
for an examination the night before the test.
It doesnt matter if youre still a student in school, or if
youre an employee at work, the temptation to put things off
is common to all of us. Procrastination and cramming often go
hand in hand together as we try to smash a weeks worth of
tasks into one day. However, this is stressful for most people,
and even those who say they work best under pressure end up
feeling tired and defeated.
Having that adrenaline rush may help speed up the work
progress, but its no guarantee youll be able to come up with
a decent final output. Why not learn to manage your time
more efficiently instead, and guarantee that youll end up with
brilliant results?
Here are a few tips to help you speed up your tasks so that
you dont cram them all in the final two minutes before the
deadline.
1) Make a To-Do List
Task managers and organizers do have a lot of use, especially
for those who juggle several commitments and have a lot on
their plate. When stress is added into the equation, its
sometimes difficult to rely solely on your memory to figure
out what it is you have to do next. More often than not, a lot
of time is wasted just figuring out what to do next, especially
if youre rushed and faced with several high-priority tasks.
Taking the time in advance to prioritize and schedule your
time will give you a clearer perspective on what your game
plan should be.
2) Learn How to Speed Read
Its a valuable asset, knowing how to speed read, considering
that our world is governed by symbols letters and numbers
which must be read and understood. Imagine how much time
people would save over the course of the day or week if they
knew and used speed reading techniques, said Marc Slater,
director of 7 Speed Reading. He makes a very valid point: by
learning how to speed read, you should be able to cruise
through your tasks faster, especially those that require reading
and comprehension which is practically everything, really.
3) Give Yourself A Reward
One of the more effective methods of making sure you stay on
track is to give yourself the promise of a reward. This kind of
system works for pets and children as well as adults, and
theres no reason you cant use it for yourself too. If your
company rewards you every month for a job well done then
you can give yourself the same motivation for every task you
have to do on daily basis. Use the to-do list mentioned in step
1 above and treat yourself to a good cup of coffee when youve
checked off the items on the list. For larger projects and major
accomplishments, get some relief from the stress of your busy
life with a massage or spa treatment, or perhaps a weekend at
the seaside. Youll return to your work refreshed and ready to
accomplish even more!
Identifying resources and their uses
Resourece Management
In organizational studies, resource management is the efficient
and effective deployment of an organization's resources when
they are needed. Such resources may include financial
resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or
information technology (IT).
The process of using a company's resources in the most
efficient way possible. These resources can include tangible
resources such as goods and equipment, financial resources,
and labor resources such as employees. Resource management
can include ideas such as making sure one has enough physical
resources for one's business, but not an overabundance so that
products won't get used, or making sure that people are
assigned to tasks that will keep them busy and not have too
much downtime.
Facility Management
Facility management (or facilities management or FM) is an
interdisciplinary field devoted to the coordination of space,
infrastructure, people and organization, often associated with
the administration of office blocks, arenas, schools,
convention centers, shopping complexes, hospitals, hotels,
etc. However, FM facilitates on a wider range of activities than
just business services and these are referred to as non-core
functions. Many of these are outlined below but they do vary
from one business sector to another. In a 2009 Global Job Task
Analysis the International Facility Management Association
(IFMA) identified eleven core competencies of facility
management.
These are: communication; emergency preparedness and
business continuity; environmental stewardship and
sustainability; finance and business; human factors; leadership
and strategy; operations and maintenance; project
management; quality; real estate and property management;
and technology.
FM has become highly competitive, subject to continuous
innovation and development, under pressure to reduce costs
and to add value to the core business of the client organisation
where possible.
Facility management is supported with training and
professional qualifications often co-ordinated by FM institutes
or associations, and a limited number of formal degree
programs exist at both undergraduate and graduate levels.
Role of FM
The FM sector acts as an umbrella, horizontally oriented
market. It currently represents about 5% of global GDP. Its
relationship to the human resources, real estate and
information technology functions of an enterprise has
increased.
The discipline of facility management and the role of facility
managers in particular are evolving to the extent that many
managers have to operate at two levels: strategic-tactical and
operational. In the former case, clients, customers and end-
users need to be informed about the potential impact of their
decisions on the provision of space, services, cost and business
risk. In the latter, it is the role of a facility manager to ensure
corporate and regulatory compliance plus the proper operation
of aspects of a building to create optimal, safe& cost effective
environment for the occupants to function.
Techniques for managing job efficiency
Performance management (PM)
It includes activities which ensure that goals are consistently
being met in an effective and efficient manner. Performance
management can focus on the performance of an organization,
a department, employee, or even the processes to build a
product of service, as well as many other areas. PM is also
known as a process by which organizations align their
resources, systems and employees to strategic objectives and
priorities.
A formal definition of performance management, according to
Daniels' is "a scientifically based, data-oriented management
system. It consists of three primary elements-measurement,
feedback and positive reinforcement.
What Are the Different Performance Management
Techniques?
Performance management techniques are ways an employer
helps maintain and promote efficient employee performance.
These can range from selecting employee management
philosophies to adopting technical performance tracking tools
to enacting formal policies. Performance management
techniques are also methods by which an employer helps
prevents unlawful practices.
Managing performance often starts with making sure
employees have formal job descriptions. Lack of definition
around roles and responsibilities often leads to decreased
efficiency, redundancies, missing roles, or general confusion.
Having a formal job description also allows for smoother
employee evaluations, since expectations and responsibilities
are clearly defined from the outset.
Next, an employer should make sure employees know how to
do their jobs and have resources to help them do their job
better. Usually, employers use mentoring and training
programs to accomplish these tasks. Some companies
specifically assign senior employees to junior ones with a
requirement to meet regularly, while other companies
encourage more casual mentoring relationships. Training
programs also differ widely; some companies require specific
courses to be taken or a certain number of units to be
completed every year, while other companies offer training
resources to their employees with few formal guidelines.
Maintaining regular performance reviews and working
with employees on personalized development plans and goals
is another way to help improve performance. The formality of
a performance review provides the employer an opportunity
to talk to employees about patterns of behavior rather than
only address specific situations. Working on an individual
performance development plan also helps keep both the
employer and employee focused on what the employee needs
to grow in his or her job.
Employers also use different compensation models to help
maintain and encourage top performance. Pay raises, bonuses,
and special benefits are common awards when employees set
defined performance goals or exceed managements
expectations.
Companies need to take care when assigning money to
behavior, however, making sure it is the right behavior they
are rewarding and that the rewards and behaviors both have
overall beneficial impact on the companys performance.

Beyond the above basic performance management
techniques, many experts theorize on what specific
techniques and philosophies work best in what types of
companies. Performance management techniques vary widely
based on whether or not they also take into account the
personality types, conflict styles, and communication norms of
different individuals. Individual contributor vs. manager is also
a distinction often taken into account when establishing
techniques.
Job Performance Models
Job performance models take various approaches that include
an evaluation by management, measurements of how many
objectives were achieved, and administering competency tests.
Employers may also ask an employee's peers or team members
to evaluate his or her performance. Some human resource
departments bring in a third party to evaluate employees,
because managers consider this to be more objective. In
manufacturing jobs, sometimes an employee's evaluation is
accomplished through a numerical measure of the person's
productivity within a certain timeframe. Job performance
models may also include such factors as a person's overall
character, dependability, or even his or her level of creative
contribution, depending upon the industry.
Many employers use a synthesis of various job
performance models to evaluate employees. Often, this is
because company management recognizes there are many
facets to a worker's productivity and contribution to a
company. Most companies tend to divide along the lines of
objective and subjective performance evaluations. An
objective model looks at a person's job performance by how
much work has been accomplished, or by objectively
measuring a person's competency through testing.
Another way of obtaining an objective look at an employee's
performance is to bring in a third party. Not infrequently, an
employer might use this third party to do a performance
review on the entire staff. The idea behind this is that a
stranger will not be swayed by emotional attachments, and
therefore will be more likely to obtain accurate evaluations of
workers.
Subjective job performance models may poll a worker's
peers or customers in order to gain insight into what his or her
performance is like when supervisors are not watching.
Sometimes this type of performance evaluation looks at how a
supervisor may treat his or her underlings by assuring them
confidentiality, as there may be no other way to obtain this
information. Another type of subjective job performance
model is to poll the person's coworkers, while assuring them
anonymity.
Still another method is to use a subjective job performance
model to evaluate highly subjective aspects of performance.
For example, the performance of those who work in creative
fields may not fit into an analytical framework.
10 ways to improve your performance at work
Successful professionals create value by finding a need and
meeting it. They are unique in being able to create new
products, services, business models, or just simply more
effective solutions with passion and insight.
1. Plan and prioritize.
Failing to plan is planning to fail. Have an end goal in mind and
organize a game plan to get there. Create a daily schedule and
stick to it. Be punctual and dont postpone. Determine what
projects and tasks are critical, urgent and create the largest
value and benefit to the business. Select what you can easily
postpone and what you can delegate without hurting results; a
lions chunk of prioritizing involves simply learning to say no.
2. Avoid distractions.
Focus is a key trait of productive professionals; distractions are
the bane of productivity. According to Bayt.coms Rest and
Recreation Habits Among MENA Professionals poll earlier this
year, 30.7% of respondents say that they spend more than five
hours a day surfing the internet just for fun. Dont lose sight of
your vision, mission and values along your journey.
Remember, sustainable success is rarely about revolutionary
breakthroughs, its invariably a process of evolution that feeds
off consistent progress.
3. Set interim milestones and reward yourself.
The road to your destination may be long and winding; the
end-goal may still be a few moons away. But dont let that stop
you from taking time to smell the roses. Set clear milestones
for interim success and reward yourself with a break from time
to time. Breaking a long project into chunks of mini-tasks with
individual milestones and success metrics will keep your
morale high and energy levels soaring. 62.2% of professionals
in the region polled by Bayt.com claim that they do receive
recognition or praise at work but only from others; make sure
to tabulate your own progress and reward yourself too!
4. Read something new.
Try to allocate some time every day to read, refine skills and
learn something new. Take notes and share your knowledge
whenever possible; in this way you are learning more actively
and also building a reputation and establishing expertise for
yourself. With change happening all around you, the quickest
way to increase productivity, improve performance, and
maintain a competitive edge is to stay fully abreast of the
latest tools, trends, and technologies in your industry. 77.9%
of respondents to a Bayt.com poll indicated they read
constantly and 69.6% indicated they believe reading is vital to
career progress.
5. Ask a question.
What if I did this differently? What if there is a faster, easier,
more effective way to achieve the same results? What if I
changed my pitch/tone/content/brand or message? Whatever
the question you ask, you need to constantly challenge the
status quo and question yourself and others to find out
whether you are really working as productively as you possibly
could. Never be satisfied that things cant be improved.
6. Simply listen.
Whether within your team or to outside clients, you need to
listen regularly and often. They will provide you with first-
hand insights into your performance and alert you to their
preferences so you can better meet demand. You may be able
to amplify your productivity substantially by better
understanding and honing in on actual consumer
expectations and learning to anticipate their needs. Listen to
your team, your stakeholders and your peers in the industry
too.
7. Take stock of your competitive space.
Rarely are we blessed with a space void of competitors;
understanding your market is essential. Observe what your
competitors are up to, analyze what they are doing right and
not so right and treat their experience as a key learning
opportunity to keep innovating and iterating.
8. Give credit where credit is due.
All of us rely on the cooperation, input, feedback and buy-in of
others to get our job done. To facilitate and magnify this kind
of cooperation, you need to give credit to others and show
gratitude along the way. Help those around you to excel and
youre bound to rise together.
9. Stay healthy.
Good health and an acceptable work-life balance lead to
better productivity. A recent poll conducted by Bayt.com
reveals that professionals in the Middle East and North Africa
are keen on maintaining a healthy work-life balance. In fact,
26.9% of polled professionals believe that their poor work-life
balance has jeopardized both their mental health and
happiness, and a staggering 64.8% of them would even accept
a pay cut to have more free time on their job.
To sustain peak performance over the long term and avoid
stress and burnout, you need to be physically and mentally
healthy. Eat well, sleep sufficiently and try to squeeze some
exercise into your routine on a regular basis.
10. Put your heart in it.
Passion is one of the single most important drivers of success. If
your heart and soul arent in what you are doing, you are likely
not putting your best effort forward. Do some soul-searching
and find out what it will take to make you love what you do
and perform to the very best of your abilities. Make sure your
values are being reflected and respected in what you do and
that you see true meaning in your work.
Managing Stress
Stress Management
Hans Selye was one of the founding fathers of stress research.
His view in 1956 was that "stress is not necessarily something
bad it all depends on how you take it. The stress of
exhilarating, creative successful work is beneficial, while that of
failure, humiliation or infection is detrimental." Selye believed
that the biochemical effects of stress would be experienced
irrespective of whether the situation was positive or negative.

Since then, a great deal of further research has been
conducted, and ideas have moved on. Stress is now viewed as a
"bad thing", with a range of harmful biochemical and long-term
effects. These effects have rarely been observed in positive
situations.
The most commonly accepted definition of stress (mainly
attributed to Richard S Lazarus) is that stress is a condition or
feeling experienced when a person perceives that "demands
exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able
to mobilize." In short, it's what we feel when we think we've
lost control of events. This is the main definition used by this
section of Mind Tools, although we also recognize that there is
an intertwined instinctive stress response to unexpected
events. The stress response inside us is therefore part instinct
and part to do with the way we think.
Fight-or-Flight
Some of the early research on stress (conducted by Walter
Cannon in 1932) established the existence of the well-known
"fight-or-flight" response. His work showed that when an
organism experiences a shock or perceives a threat, it quickly
releases hormones that help it to survive.
In humans, as in other animals, these hormones help us
to run faster and fight harder. They increase heart rate and
blood pressure, delivering more oxygen and blood sugar to
power important muscles. They increase sweating in an effort
to cool these muscles, and help them stay efficient. They
divert blood away from the skin to the core of our bodies,
reducing blood loss if we are damaged. As well as this, these
hormones focus our attention on the threat, to the exclusion
of everything else. All of this significantly improves our ability
to survive life-threatening events.
Not only life-threatening events trigger this reaction: We
experience it almost any time we come across something
unexpected or something that frustrates our goals. When the
threat is small, our response is small and we often do not
notice it among the many other distractions of a stressful
situation.
Unfortunately, this mobilization of the body for survival
also has negative consequences. In this state, we are excitable,
anxious, jumpy and irritable. This actually reduces our ability
to work effectively with other people. With trembling and a
pounding heart, we can find it difficult to execute precise,
controlled skills. The intensity of our focus on survival
interferes with our ability to make fine judgments by drawing
information from many sources. We find ourselves more
accident-prone and less able to make good decisions.
There are very few situations in modern working life where
this response is useful. Most situations benefit from a calm,
rational, controlled and socially sensitive approach.
In the short term, we need to keep this fight-or-flight response
under control to be effective in our jobs. In the long term we
need to keep it under control to avoid problems of poor health
and burnout.
Types of job stress
The 8 Types Of Work-Related Stress
Job stress can fray nerves, keep you up at night and contribute
to health problems such as heart disease and depression.
"Chronic job strain can put both your physical and emotional
health at risk," says Paul J. Rosch, MD, the president of the
American Institute of Stress.
Finding the source of your stress is the first step to fighting it,
but that's easier said than done. Fortunately, experts have
identified specific work situations that are likely to make your
blood boil. Which one of these stressed out workers do you
resemble?
Overworked underling
The profile: You're busy from the time you get to work until
the time you leave, but you have little freedom while you're
there. You don't have much say over how you do your job or
the types of projects you work on, and you're always on
someone else's schedule.
The solution: These types of jobs -- known as "high-demand,
low-control" -- tend to cause a great deal of psychological
strain, says Peter L. Schnall, MD, an occupational stress expert
at the University of California at Irvine.

Even if you can't make your job less demanding, finding ways
to get more involved in decision-making will help ease the
stress, research suggests.
Frustrated go-getter
The profile: You work your tail off, but you feel you don't
receive enough credit, or compensation. With lots of sweat
(and maybe a few tears), you've made your bosses look good.
Still, you haven't received a raise, a promotion or sufficient
recognition.

The solution: These so-called "effort-reward imbalances" are a
recipe for stress, especially among very driven people who are
eager for approval.

Try discussing your career goals with your boss. You may not
get the rewards you want right away, but you could gain some
insight about how to improve your situation and outlook.
Castaway
The profile: You feel like you're all alone, and not in a good
way. If you require help or guidance, your boss won't give it to
you, and when you need to vent, you don't have a trusted ally
to turn to.
The solution: A good support system at work includes both
practical support from your bosses (the resources and help
you need to do your job well) and emotional support from
colleagues. Too little of either could make you feel stranded on
irritation island.
Work on communicating your needs, both practical and
emotional. If you want your boss's help, be as specific (and
persuasive) as possible, and make connecting with coworkers
a priority.
Doormat
The profile: You deal with demanding and verbally abusive
customers, but through it all you're expected -- no, required --
to swallow your resentment and maintain a facade of
professionalism, calm and courtesy.
The solution: "When there's a discrepancy between your
internal state and the roles you're expected to play at work,
you experience what researchers call emotional labor," says
Dr. Schnall.
Ask your boss for advice or additional training on how to
handle difficult customers without feeling demoralized. Doing
your job without taking abuse personally will leave you
feeling better about yourself.
Tech prisoner
The profile: Thanks to the Blackberry, cell phone and laptop
your company so generously provided, your boss can now
reach you 24/7. You're constantly (if virtually) connected to the
office, and your work and personal life are indistinguishable.
The solution: "Techno-stress is an important and growing
issue," says Dr. Rosch, who is also a clinical professor of
medicine and psychiatry at New York Medical College, in
Valhalla, N.Y.
To protect yourself from mental and physical strain, learn how
to unplug (literally). Set aside blocks of time -- between 9 p.m.
and 8 a.m., say when you turn your electronics off and focus
on clearing your head.
Burnout
The profile: You're terminally exhausted, both physically and
emotionally, to the point where it becomes difficult to
function. You feel as if you're on the verge of a breakdown.

The solution: Although the word "burnout" is used loosely, the
technical definition is severe exhaustion stemming from
prolonged work-related stress. Burnout occurs most often in
very charged, high-stakes work environments (such as ERs).
But it can occur in just about any stressful job.

If you're experiencing burnout, discuss it with a supervisor and
explore whether you can take time off or even a leave of
absence.
Bully target
The profile: Your boss insults you, gives you impossible
deadlines, assigns you busywork just because she can and
dresses you down in front of your colleagues. Or you've seen
her do those things to others -- and you're worried that you're
next.

The solution: Bullying isn't restricted to the playground; it
appears to be on the rise in offices too. If you feel you're the
victim of a bullying boss, you can try to mollify her. And if your
coworkers share in your frustration, you can try confronting
your tyrannical boss as a group. (There's safety in numbers.) If
that doesn't work, document the bullying and raise your
concerns with a superior or with human resources (HR).
Wronged victim
The profile: Work just isn't fair. Your boss plays favorites,
management decisions are mystifying and arbitrary and
employees are treated like children.

The solution: Workplaces that aren't fair, transparent and
respectful lack what's known as "organizational justice," and
they're likely to have stressed-out employees. "Pretty much
anytime an individual feels they are being dealt with
differently or unfairly, it places potentially harmful stress on
them," says Dr. Schnall.

You only have so much control over the atmosphere at work.
However, raising your concerns with a trusted superior or HR
rep may leave you feeling less burned out -- and less stressed.
Causes of Stress
A lot of things can cause stress. You may feel stress when you
go on a job interview, take a test, or run a race. These kinds of
short-term stress are normal. Long-term (chronic) stress is
caused by stressful situations or events that last over a long
period of time, like problems at work or conflicts in your
family. Over time, chronic stress can lead to severe health
problems.
Personal problems that can cause stress
Your health, especially if you have a chronic illness such as
heart disease, diabetes, or arthritis
Emotional problems, such as anger you can't express,
depression, grief, guilt, or low self-esteem
Your relationships, having problems with your relationships
or feeling a lack of friendships or support in your life
Major life changes, such as dealing with the death of a
parent or spouse, losing your job, getting married, or
moving to a new city
Stress in your family, such as having a child, teen, or other
family member who is under stress, or being a caregiver to a
family member who is elderly or who has health problems
Conflicts with your beliefs and values. For example, you may
value family life, but you may not be able to spend as much
time with your family as you want.
Social and job issues that can cause stress
Your surroundings. Living in an area where overcrowding,
crime, pollution, or noise is a problem can create chronic
stress.
Your social situation. Not having enough money to cover
your expenses, feeling lonely, or facing discrimination based
on your race, gender, age, or sexual orientation can add
stress to your life.
Your job. Being unhappy with your work or finding your job
too demanding can lead to chronic stress. Learn how to
manage job stress.
Unemployment. Losing your job or not being able to find
work can also add to your stress level.
Most of the time, it's the major sources of stress that
lead to job burnout and health problems. Job stress can affect
your home life too. Here are additional sources of major job
stress, with examples of each:
Lack of control. Feeling as if you have no control over your
work or job duties is the biggest cause of job stress. People
who feel like they have no control at work are most likely to
get stress-related illnesses. Here's an example:
Shelly is responsible for putting together a report that her
boss must deliver at a 4 p.m. meeting. She's been waiting all
day for the notes and numbers she needs. Shelly finally gets
the notes from her boss at 3:15 and rushes to prepare the
report and charts and to make copies in time. She gets it done,
but she feels mad and resentful. This is the third time this
week that this has happened.
Increased responsibility. Taking on extra duties in your
job is stressful. You can get more stressed if you have too much
work to do and you can't say no to new tasks.
John volunteers for every new project, because he heard that's
the best way to get promoted. But the tasks are starting to pile
up, and he's feeling overwhelmed. He knows he can't really
manage one more thing. But this morning, John's boss asked
him to take on another project, and John agreed. Now he's
more worried than ever about getting everything done.
Job satisfaction and performance. Do you take pride in your
job? If your job isn't meaningful, you may find it stressful. Are
you worried about doing well at work? Feeling insecure about
job performance is a major source of stress for many people.
Raoul has worked in his new job for 8 months. He thinks he is
doing well. But his boss doesn't say much. He wonders if he's
on the right track, but he's afraid to ask.
Uncertainty about work roles.
Being unsure about your duties, how your job might be
changing, or the goals of your department or company can
lead to stress. If you report to more than one boss, juggling the
demands of different managers can also be stressful. Rosa's old
manager was promoted. Now Rosa is working for someone
new. She's heard that the new boss plans to "shake things up"
in her department. The new boss just hired Emily, whose job
seems to be the same as Rosa's. Rosa worries about what this
means.
Poor communication. Tension on the job often comes from
poor communication. Being unable to talk about your needs,
concerns, and frustrations can create stress. A new job with
more responsibility and better pay just opened up in Jill's
department.
Jill knows she can do this job. And she's been with the
company longer than anyone else on her team. She waits for
her manager to ask if she is interested. But after several weeks,
a coworker is promoted to the new job. Jill feels hurt and angry,
but she doesn't say anything.
Lack of support. Lack of support from your boss or coworkers
makes it harder to solve other problems at work that are
causing stress for you.
Jeff works in a busy office answering customer complaint calls
all day. It would be easier to handle all the calls if he could at
least trade tips with his coworkers. But everyone else is busy
too. His coworkers never make it out of their cubicles during
the day, even to let off a little steam.
Poor working conditions. Unpleasant or dangerous physical
conditions, such as crowding, noise, or ergonomic problems,
can cause stress.
Sonya is exposed to constant noise at work. She wears
earplugs, but at the end of her shift her ears are ringing. She
often comes home with a headache.
Techniques for managing job stress
Quick stress reduction techniques
If you are stressed, do one or all of these things, in whatever
order that takes your fancy. These ideas can also be adapted
for team development exercises.
The key to de-stressing in the moment is getting away from or
removing yourself from the stressor. Developing new habits
which regularly remove you and distract you from stressors
and stressful situations and pressures is essentially how to
manage stress on a more permanent basis.
In this modern world it is difficult if not impossible to change
stressful situations. What we can do however is change and
reduce our exposure to those stressful situations.
These stress reduction ideas and techniques are based on that
simple principle. These tips won't change the situation causing
the stress, but they will, more importantly, enable you to
change your reaction and relationship to the stressful
situations.
And in keeping with the tone of this stress tips section, and
since colour is regarded by many as a factor in affecting mood,
the calming shade of green is used for the headings..
1 - Humour
Humour is one of the greatest and quickest devices for reducing
stress.
Humour works because laughter produces helpful chemicals in
the brain.
Humour also gets your brain thinking and working in a different
way - it distracts you from having a stressed mindset.
Distraction is a simple effective de-stressor - it takes your
thoughts away from the stress, and thereby diffuses the
stressful feelings.
Therefore most people will feel quite different and notice a
change in mindset after laughing and being distracted by
something humorous.
Keep taking the laughter medicine until you feel suitably
relaxed and re-charged.
2 - Brisk walk and self-talk
Go for a short quick really brisk walk outside.
Yes, actually leave the building.
Change your environment.
Breathe in some fresh air and smell the atmosphere...
Trees, rain, flowers, traffic fumes - doesn't matter - stimulate
your senses with new things.
On your way out keep saying to yourself out loud (and to
anyone else you see, in that daft way people say "Elvis has left
the building.."):
"(your name) is leaving the building.. "
And when you are outside and free say:
"(your name) has left the building.. "
You can extend the exercise by going to a park and jogging a
little.
Or do a few star-jumps - something energetic to get your body
moving and relaxing.
Or stroke a dog, or pick up some litter, or kick a kid's football.
You can of course use other mantras or chants, depending on
what you want to do and how far you want to get away from
the stress causes, for example:
"(your name) is doing star-jumps/picking up litter/looking for a
small non-threatening dog.." or
"(your name) is leaving/has left the industrial
park/district/city/company/country.." etc, etc.
Of course this is daft, but the daftness reduces the stress by
removing you from the stress in mind and body.
Doing something daft and physical - and reinforcing it with
some daft chanting - opens up the world again.
3 - Rehydrate
Go get a big cup or a bottle of water.
Here's why...
Most of us fail to drink enough water - that's water - not tea,
coffee, coke, 'sports' drinks, Red Bull or fruit juice...
All of your organs, including your brain, are strongly dependent
on water to function properly. It's how we are built.
If you starve your body of water you will function below your
best - and you will get stressed. Physically and mentally.
Offices and workplaces commonly have a very dry atmosphere
due to air conditioning, etc., which increases people's
susceptibility to de-hydration.
This is why you must keep your body properly hydrated by
regularly drinking water (most people need 4-8 glasses of
water a day).
You will drink more water if you keep some on your desk at all
times - it's human nature to drink it if it's there - so go get
some now.
When you drink water you need to pee. This gives you a bit of
a break and a bit of exercise now and then, which also reduces
stress.
When you pee you can see if your body is properly hydrated
(your pee will be clear or near clear - if it's yellow you are not
taking enough water).
This will also prompt some amusing discussion and chuckling
with your colleagues ("Nature calls - I'm off to the bog
again...") which is also good for reducing stress.
You do not need to buy expensive mineral water. Tap water is
fine.
If you do not like the taste of tap water it's probably because
of the chlorine (aquarium fish don't like it either), however
the chlorine dissipates quite naturally after a few hours - even
through a plastic bottle - so keep some ordinary tap water in
the fridge for 2-3 hours and try it then.
If you want to be really exotic add a slice of lemon or lime.
Kiwi and sharon fruit are nice too...
So now you are fully watered and guffawing and exercised up
to the max, read on for ideas for how to prevent stress as well
as reduce and manage it.
4 - Catnap or powernap
(Not so easy but still perfectly possible)
Take a quick nap. It is nature's way of recharging and re-
energising.
A quick 10-30 minutes' sleep is very helpful to reduce stress.
It's obviously essential if you are driving while tired, but a
quick sleep is a powerful de-stressor too.
A lunchtime snooze is very practical for home-workers - it just
requires the realisation that doing so is acceptable and
beneficial (when we are conditioned unfortunately to think
that sleeping during the day is lazy, rather than healthy).
At some stage conventional Western industry will 'wake up' to
the realisation that many people derive enormous benefit
from a midday nap.
Sounds ridiculous? Tell that to the many millions in the
Mediterranean countries who thrive on a mid-day siesta.
People in the Mediterranean and Central Americas take a
siesta every working day, and this is almost certainly related to
longer life expectancy and lower levels of heart disease.
If your work situation is not quite ready to tolerate the
concept of a daytime nap then practise a short session of self-
hypnosis, combined with deep breathing, which you can do at
your desk, or even in the loo. It works wonders.
In the summer of course you can go to the nearest park and
try it alfresco (that's from the Italian incidentally, al fresco,
meaning in the fresh air - which is another good thing for
stress reduction).
5 - Make a cuppa
Any tea will do, but a flavoured cup of tea is even better.
Experiment with different natural flavourings using herbs and
spices and fruit.
Fresh mint is wonderful, and excellent for the digestive
system. Nettles are fantastic and contain natural relaxants.
Orange zest is super (use one of those nifty little zester
gadgets). Ginger root is brilliant. Many herbs, spices, fruits and
edible plants make great flavoured tea, and many herbs and
spices have real therapeutic properties.
Use a 'base' of green tea leaves - about half a spoonful per
serving - plus the natural flavouring(s) of your choice, and
freshly boiled water. Be bold - use lots of leaves - experiment
until you find a blend that you really enjoy. Sugar or honey
bring out the taste. Best without milk, but milk is fine if you
prefer it.
Making the tea and preparing the ingredients take your
mind off your problems, and then smelling and drinking the tea
also relaxes you. There is something wonderful about natural
plants and fruits which you can't buy in a packet. Use a tea-pot
or cafetiere, or if you are happy with a bit of foliage in your
drink actually brew it in a big mug or heatproof tumbler.
Dried mint can be substituted for fresh mint.
Experiment. The Moroccan tradition is to use small glass
tumblers, and somehow seeing the fine colour of the tea
adds to the experience.
Career Information
Review of career in field of study
What is a Career?
The following definitions are important to an understanding of
'career' as a concept.
A JOB is a paid position requiring a group of specific attributes
and skills that enable a person to perform tasks in an
organisation either part-time or full-time for a short or long
duration.
An OCCUPATION is defined as a group of similar jobs found in
different industries or organisations.
A CAREER is the sequence and variety of occupations (paid and
unpaid) which one undertakes throughout a lifetime. More
broadly, career includes life roles, leisure activities, learning
and work.
CAREER DEVELOPMENT is the process of managing life,
learning and work over the lifespan.
CAREER GUIDANCE is an inclusive term that has been used to
describe a range of interventions including career education
and counselling, that help people to move from a general
understanding of life and work to a specific understanding of
the realistic life, learning and work options that are open to
them. Career guidance is often thought to incorporate career
information, career education and career counselling.
Career Information - Information about education and work.
Career information includes personal, social, educational, and
occupational information emphasizing the user's individual
characteristics, attributes, skills, knowledge, interests, values,
and aptitudes. Career decision makers and career guidance
professionals use career information to discover and explore
occupational opportunities, related education and training
programs, schools, and financial aid.
Information
General data you can gather about how to access learning and
work opportunities. Information is provided on paper, video or
computer and through web sites.
Sometimes also provided by information officers in
career services or telephone helpline services.
Information can be provided on qualifications, childcare,
financial support, job vacancies, basic skills, volunteering and
many other areas.
Advice
If you need more help to understand the information
available, then you need advice. Advice provides an
immediate response and more support to help you find what
you need.
Advice is provided by an individual either face-to-face, or by
phone or online, for example, to help you decide what course
to do or which training provider to choose.
If your needs are more complex and more time is needed, you
may be referred to a more in-depth guidance interview.
Guidance
You turn to guidance when you need more in-depth help,
either on your own or in a group, from a trained guidance
worker.
This will help you to explore your options, relate information
to your own needs and circumstances and make decisions
about your career. This could include helping you to set goals
for learning and work and drawing up an action plan.
With this approach, guidance can be seen as "... a three-tiered
service, providing information, advice and counselling, in a
progression of increasing interaction with the individual
concerned, in other words as a set of career development
services, which will enable the individual to make decisions
about their life, learning, and work in self-directed ways"
Career Information Uses
While career information, advice and guidance can fulfil
individual goals, it can also contribute to public policy
objectives, such as improved efficiency of the labour market,
through:
Re-stimulating "discouraged" workers to become active
participants in the labour market
Facilitating better matches between the skills and
qualifications held by job-seekers and those sought by
employers
Increasing the efficiency of job searching, so the duration of
unemployment is reduced.
Career Management, which is the combination of structured
planning and the active management choice of one's own
professional career.
The outcome of successful career management should
include personal fulfillment, work/life balance, goal
achievement and financial security.
1. Development of overall goals and objectives,
2. Development of a strategy (a general means to accomplish
the selected goals/objectives),
3. Development of the specific means (policies, rules,
procedures and activities) to implement the strategy, and
4. Systematic evaluation of the progress toward the
achievement of the selected goals/objectives to modify the
strategy, if necessary.
Career Information sources
Like any major decision, selecting a career involves a lot of fact
finding. Fortunately, some of the best informational resources
are easily accessible. You should assess career guidance
materials carefully.
Information that seems out of date or glamorizes an
occupationoverstates its earnings or exaggerates the demand
for workers, for exampleshould be evaluated with skepticism.
Gathering as much information as possible will help you make a
more informed decision.
People you know. One of the best resources can be those you
know, such as friends and family. They may answer some
questions about a particular occupation or put you in touch with
someone who has some experience in the field. This personal
networking can be invaluable in evaluating an occupation or an
employer. These people will be able to tell you about their
specific duties and training, as well as what they did or did not
like about a job. People who have worked in an occupation
locally also may be able to recommend and get you in touch
with specific employers.
Local libraries. Libraries can be an invaluable source of
information.
Since most areas have libraries, they can be a convenient place
to look for information. Also, for those who do not otherwise
have access to the Internet or e-mail, many libraries provide
this access.
Libraries may have information on job openings, locally and
nationally; potential contacts within occupations or industries;
colleges and fi nancial aid; vocational training; individual
businesses or careers; and writing rsums. Libraries
frequently have subscriptions to various trade magazines that
can provide information on occupations and industries. These
sources often have references to organizations which can
provide additional information about training and employment
opportunities.
Your local library also may have video materials.
If you need help getting started or finding a resource, ask your
librarian for assistance.
Professional societies, trade groups, and labor unions. These
groups have information on an occupation or various related
occupations with which they are associated or which they
actively represent. This information may cover training
requirements, earnings, and listings of local employers. These
groups may train members or potential members themselves,
or may be able to put you in contact with organizations or
individuals who perform such training.
Each occupational statement in the Handbook concludes with
a section on sources of additional information, which lists
organizations that may be contacted for more information.
Another valuable source for finding organizations
associated with occupations is The Encyclopedia of
Associations, an annual publication that lists trade
associations, professional societies, labor unions, and fraternal
and patriotic organizations.
Employers. This is the primary source of information on
specific jobs. Employers may post lists of job openings and
application requirements, including the exact training and
experience required, starting wages and benefits, and
advancement opportunities and career paths.
Postsecondary institutions. Colleges, universities, and other
postsecondary institutions may put a lot of effort into helping
place their graduates in good jobs, because the success of their
graduates may indicate the quality of their institution and
affect their ability to attract new students.
Postsecondary institutions frequently have career centers
with libraries of information on different careers, listings of
related jobs, and alumni contacts in various professions.
Career centers frequently employ career counselors who
generally provide their services only to their students and
alumni. Career centers can help you build your rsum, fi nd
internships and co-ops which can lead to full-time positions,
and tailor your course selection or program to make you a
more attractive job applicant.
Guidance and career counselors. Counselors can help you
make choices about which careers might suit you best.
Counselors can help you determine what occupations suit
your skills by testing your aptitude for various types of work,
and determining
your strengths and interests.
Counselors can help you evaluate your options and search for a
job in your field or help you select a new field altogether. They
can also help you determine which educational or training
institutions best fi t your goals, and find ways to finance them.
Some counselors offer other services such as interview
coaching, rsum building, and help in filling out various
forms. Counselors in secondary schools and postsecondary
institutions may arrange guest speakers, field trips, or job fairs.
Common places where guidance and career counselors
are employed include:
High school guidance offices
College career planning and placement offices
Placement offices in private vocational or technical schools
and institutions
Vocational rehabilitation agencies
Counseling services offered by community organizations
Private counseling agencies and private practices
State employment service offices
When using a private counselor, check to see if the counselor
is experienced. One way to do so is to ask people who have
used their services in the past. The National Board of Certified
Counselors and Affiliates is an institution which accredits
career counselors.
Internet resources. With the growing popularity of the
Internet, a wide verity of career information has become
easily accessible. Many online resources include job listings,
rsum posting services, and information on job fairs,
training, and local 10 Occupational Outlook Handbook wages.
Many of the resources listed elsewhere in this section have
Internet sites that include valuable information on potential
careers. Since no single source contains all information on an
occupation, field, or employer, you will likely need to use a
variety of sources.
When using Internet resources, be sure that the organization
is a credible, established source of information on the
particular occupation. Individual companies may include job
listings on their Web sites, and may include information about
required credentials, wages and benefits, and the jobs
location.
Contact information, such as whom to call or where to send a
rsum, is typically included.
Some sources exist primarily as a Web service. These services
often have information on specific jobs, and can greatly aid in
the job hunting process. Some commercial sites offer these
services, as do Federal, State, and some local governments.
Career OneStop, a joint program by the Department of Labor
and the States as well as local agencies, provides these services
free of charge.
Goals or objectives development
The career management process begins with setting
goals/objectives. A relatively specific goal/objective must be
formulated. This task may be quite difficult when the
individual lacks knowledge of career opportunities and/or is
not fully aware of their talents and abilities. However, the
entire career management process is based on the
establishment of defined goals/objectives whether specific or
general in nature. Utilizing career assessments may be a
critical step in identifying opportunities and career paths that
most resonate with someone. Career assessments can range
from quick and informal to more indepth. Regardless of the
ones you use, you will need to evaluate them.
Most assessments found today for free (although good) do not
offer an in-depth evaluation.
The time horizon for the achievement of the selected goals or
objectives - short term, medium term or long term - will have
a major influence on their formulation.
1. Short term goals (one or two years) are usually specific and
limited in scope. Short term goals are easier to formulate.
Make sure they are achievable and relate to your longer term
career goals.
2. Intermediate goals (3 to 20 years) tend to be less specific
and more open ended than short term goals. Both
intermediate and long term goals are more difficult to
formulate than short term goals because there are so many
unknowns about the future.
3. Long term goals (Over 20 years), of course, are the most
fluid of all. Lack of life experience and knowledge about
potential opportunities and pitfalls make the formulation of
long term goals/objectives very difficult. Long range
goals/objectives, however, may be easily modified as
additional information is received without a great loss of
career efforts because of experience/knowledge transfer from
one career to another.
4. Making career choices and decisions the traditional focus
of careers interventions. The changed nature of work means
that individuals may now have to revisit this process more
frequently now and in the future, more than in the past.
5. Managing the organizational career concerns the career
management tasks of individuals within the workplace, such as
decision-making, life-stage transitions, dealing with stress etc.
6. Managing 'boundaryless' careers refers to skills needed by
workers whose employment is beyond the boundaries of a
single organization, a workstyle common among, for example,
artists and designers.
7. Taking control of one's personal development as
employers take less responsibility, employees need to take
control of their own development in order to maintain and
enhance their employability.
Career Planning
Career planning is a subset of career management. Career
planning applies the concepts of Strategic planning and
Marketing to taking charge of one's professional future.Career
is an ongoing process and so it needs to be assessed on
continuous basis. This process of re-assessing individual
learning and development over a period of time is called
Career Planning. It consists of 4 steps that are essential for
proper and complete planning.
Importance of Career Planning
It is important to come up with your career planning as it gives
you the much needed direction and makes it clear there where
you see yourself in future. It makes you aware of your strength
and weaknesses and the skills and knowledge that are
required to achieve your goals in future.
A large proportion of our life is spent in achieving our career
goals, thus it is very important to make sure that right steps
were taken and correct planning was done in the early years of
your life. There are very few lucky ones who are born with a
clear mind and who knows what they want to do and where
they see themselves in life ahead. But majority of us are not
sure what we want from life and so it in very important to plan
out things. Thus career planning is what gives your career and
in some way your life, true meaning and purpose.
Process of Career Planning
The process of career planning is also known as career
development stages and career development model. These
steps help you in planning your career and deciding about your
future.
Self Assessment
Self assessment is a process that helps you in assessing your
skills, your potential, your strengths and your ability to fulfill
your aims. As the name of the step suggest, you self asses
yourself and then based on your analyses and keeping your
strengths and weaknesses in mind you draft your future plan.
By drafting your future plan we mean that executing this step
helps you to finalize the profession and career path you want
to choose.
Make sure that you choose and finalize more than one career,
keep one or two careers in case you decide to roll back. In case
the career you chose does not satisfies you or later in time you
come to know that this was not meant for you then in that
case you must have a backup plan.
Self Development
Once you have self analyzed yourself the second step that
await your attention is to fill the loopholes you have identified
in the above step. By this we mean that in this step you have
to see that what are the qualities and skills that are required
by you to help you achieve your aims and goals. For instance
you might decide that you need training or a particular course
in a field in order to make you perfect for the profession you
have chosen.
It could be that you are interested in painting but you are not
much aware of the trends or the knowledge that is required for
this field. Or there can be a case where you are interested and
much aware about a profession like teaching but you do not
yet know that what is the niche level that is meant for you like
and the subjects you can carry off pretty well.
A Thorough Research Self Development
Once you have list down the careers that are favorable in your
case and the skills and improvements that are required by you
in order to achieve excellence the third step requires you to do
an intensive research and see that what that are findings
related to career options and the skills that are required to
make you champion in that.
You research will be looking into following questions:
What is the scope of the career you have chosen?
Will that career pay you off in the future?
Is there room for expansion in that career field?
Come up with Action Form
Once you have researched the feasibility of the factors that you
have finalized in above steps, the next step is to show some
action and translate your plans on a piece of page. This step
requires you to make plan as in how you are going to achieve
and fulfill the steps you have decided above. The best way to
come with an action plan is to come up with small goals for
oneself. Once these small goals are achieved, we can see that
how much close we are to our main aim and major goal. This
small step acts as a path way to the main aim.
Action
Once you are done with small goals and the main aim, the
next step remains to start implementing your plans. Keep a
very close track of your activities to make sure that you are on
the right track and that by following this path you are surely
going to achieve you goal!
Steps for Career Plan
1. Decide your career goal, which can help you focus more
clearly on possibilities available to you.
a. A career goal can be a specific job you want to do -- such as
doctor or teacher -- or be a particular field you want to
work in, such as medicine or education.
b.Rather than limiting your future, a career goal may help
you discover career possibilities you wouldn't have thought
of otherwise. There are several job possibilities with any
chosen career. For instance, if you choose a medical career,
you may want to be a scientist, a nurse, or a doctor.
c. A career goal can also guide you into doing what you want
with your life.
2. Determine what you need to do to prepare for your chosen
career. Do you need special training? If so, find out what
schools offer the training you need. Also, determine what kind
of experience will you need to be successful in the career.
Consider an internship as a way to get work experience in the
career field.
3. Write your career plan.
Nature of the Work
OVERVIEW
Specimen processing and work flow
Sample processing will usually start with a set of samples
and a request form.
Typically a set of vacutainer tubes containing blood, or any
other specimen, will arrive to the laboratory in a small
plastic bag, along with the form.
The form and the specimens are given a laboratory number.
The specimens will usually all receive the same number,
often as a sticker that can be placed on the tubes and form.
This label has a barcode that can be scanned by automated
analyzers and test requests uploaded from the LIS.
Some laboratories use robotic sample handlers (Laboratory
automation) to optimize the workflow and reduce
contamination risk and sample handling of the staff.
The work flow in a lab is usually heavy from 2:00 am to
10:00 am. Nurses and doctors generally have their patients
tested at least once a day with general complete blood counts
and chemistry profiles. These orders are then drawn during
a morning run by phlebotomists for results to be available in
the patient's charts for the attending physicians to consult
during their morning rounds. Another busy time for the lab
is after 3:00 pm when private practice physician offices are
closing.
Path of Workflow
THE PATIENT Test selection Sample Collection
Sample Transport
Laboratory Analysis
Examination Phase
Report Creation Report Transport
Preexamination Phase
Result Interpretation Postexamination Phase
Specimen Preparation
ALL POTENTIALLY INFECTIOUS MATERIAL SHOULD BE
HANDLED, LABELED AND TRANSPORTED ACCORDINGLY.
It is essential that the following instructions be followed
exactly to assure delivery of a specimen that is adequate for
testing. All specimens must be properly identified by
indicating the patient's name on every tube or container. The
test request form has to be completed and has to include the
time and date of the specimen collection, as well as the
signature of the Physician requesting the patient's tests.
Chemistry, Hematology and Miscellaneous
Blood:
When whole blood is requested, obtain the full amount into a
vacuum tube as shown in the specimen requirement section
of this Compendium.
Lavender, Gray, Green, and Blue Top tubes contain different
anticoagulants that inhibit blood coagulation. When drawing
these specimens, immediately invert the tube 10-12 times. Do
not shake the tube as this can cause Hemolysis.
Serum:
Obtain sufficient blood to yield the required volume of Serum.
A plain Red Top tube or Red/Mottled top Barrier tube (Corvac,
SST, etc.) should be used.
When drawing these specimens, immediately invert the tube 5
times. Allow the blood to clot for about 30 minutes and
centrifuge for 15 minutes to separate the serum. If a Barrier
tube is used, no other manipulations are required. Make sure
that the gel has formed a thick, solid, intact barrier between
the serum and the clotted cells. If the gel trails into the bottom
of the tube, recentrifuge the tube for another 10 minutes. If a
plain Red Top tube is used, transfer the serum with a pipette to
a Transfer tube. It is important to avoid hemolysis.
Serum in contact with red cells will produce erroneously high
Potassium, LDH, and SGOT results and erroneous low Glucose
results. Red top tubes for blood banking specimens should not
be centrifuged.
Plasma:
Treat the specimen as in blood (above).
Urine:
Urinalysis: To adequately test urine specimens the sample
should be collected in a tube with a stabilizing chemical
present. The tube provided contains a yellow "pop off" cap
and a "Stabilur" tablet which preserves the formed elements
such as red cells, white cells, casts and epithelial cells. For
urinalysis, use a paper cup and transfer about 10 mL of urine to
the stopped tube.
Urine Chemistry: Most assays require a 24 hour collection that
should contain boric acid, hydrochloric acid, or sodium
carbonate as a preservative. Some analysis require a urine
specimen without any additive. Refer to the specific test in this
Compendium for specific test details. Instruct the patient to
discard the first urine voided upon arising in the morning and
thereafter save all urine specimens in the 24 hour container,
including the first morning voiding of the following day. Fluid
intake during the 24 hour period should be restricted as much
as possible. Measure the 24 hour volume and record it on the
container and the test request form. Keep the specimen
refrigerated until picked up by the laboratory.
Urine, Drugs of Abuse (DAU):
For routine DAU testing, submit a specimen in a blue "pop-off"
capped tube.
Urine Culture:
Collect the urine into a yellow-label screw capped vial
(Boricon). It is not necessary to urinate directly into the vial. It is
satisfactory to urinate into a paper cup (non-sterile) and to
immediately pour the specimen into the Boricon. Refrigerate
the specimen as soon as possible.
Frozen Specimens:
Certain tests must be submitted frozen because of the lability of
the analyte being tested. Keep all frozen specimens separate
from the routine tests and submit a separate test request form.
As soon as possible separate the serum or plasma and transfer
to a plastic transfer tube. Place the specimen in the office
freezer and keep until it is solid.
Notify the laboratory Logistics Department as soon as
possible that you have a frozen specimen for pick up.
PLEASE STORE YOUR SPECIMEN IN THE REFRIGERATOR OR
FREEZER UNTIL PICK UP, UNLESS SPECIFICALLY INSTRUCTED TO
DO OTHERWISE.
Your driver will pick up specimens from the nurse or
receptionist at your office or from a box outside your door if
after hours.
Cytology
Use Cytology requisition form for all Cytology specimens.
Relevant clinical information should be written down in the
space provided.
Directions for making Direct Smears:
1. Write patient's name with lead pencil on frosted end of
clean slide.
2. Spread material evenly over slide.
3. Fix immediately with cytology spray fixative from a distance
of 10 - 12 inches until liquid droplets form.
4. Allow slides to dry before sending out in designated slide
holders.
Directions for sending Fluids (Collected or Aspirated):
1. Write patient's name on container.
2. All fluids including gastric washings, pleural and peritoneal
(ascitic) fluids, have to be placed in a container with an equal
volume of 50% ethyl alcohol.
3. Send fluid immediately in securely closed containers.
NOTE: A sputum specimen will be considered unsatisfactory for
diagnosis if no pigmented macrophages (dust cells) are
present.
Aspiration Biopsy by Fine Needle (FNA):
1. Use the form for Non-Gyn Cytology for all FNA requests.
Relevant information and clinical data should be written down
as requested, in the space provided.
2. Solid masses: Do direct smears and spray with Cytology
spray fixative immediately.
3. Fluids: Add directly to fixative supplied in special container.
Method For Obtaining An Optimum Fine Needle Aspiration
Specimen:
A high percentage of smears are difficult, and sometimes
impossible, to accurately diagnose. This difficulty is primarily
due to poorly preserved cellular material or a lack of adequate
cellular material. Poorly preserved material is usually due to a
delay in fixing the smears or spraying them too closely with
the fixative and freezing the material.
A lack of adequate cells is generally the result of a
hypocellular cystic fluid spread too thinly over the slide.
Bio-Reference recommends the following procedure:
Fine needle Aspiration Technique
Local anesthesia is not necessary.
1. Clean the skin overlaying the mass with an antiseptic.
2. After the needle has entered the mass, retract the plunger
to create a vacuum in the syringe.
3. Move the needle back and forth several times in the lesion
as the material is being sucked into the needle by negative
pressure.
4. The cell sample should remain in the needle and should not
be visible in the syringe barrel.
5. Before withdrawing the needle from the lesion, the suction
must be released to avoid aspiration of the material into the
syringe barrel.
Slide Preparation
6. The needle is quickly detached from the syringe and the
plunger is retracted to allow air to fill the syringe.
7. Reattach the needle and eject its contents forcefully onto
the slides by pushing down on the plunger.
8. With the two slide method, place the slides together and
gently pull the slides apart with one continuous motion.
9. IMMEDIATELY PLACE THE SLIDE(S) IN 50 ML TUBE
CONTAINING 95% ALCOHOL to achieve preservation of
material.
10. After slides are prepared, the syringe is thoroughly rinsed
in a separate 50 mL tube of 95% alcohol (obtained from Bio-
Reference Laboratories). Both tubes are then sent along with
slides and/or cyst fluid to the laboratory where the specimen
is processed using the cytocentrifuge.
Using this procedure, even the most hypocellular
specimens will generally show a yield of cells which is
adequate for diagnosis.
ThinPrep Pap Test Broom-Like Device Protocol
1. Obtain an adequate sampling from the cervix using a broom-
like device. Insert the central bristles of the broom into the
endocervical canal deep enough to allow the shorter bristles to
fully contact the ectocervix. Push gently, and rotate the broom
in a clockwise direction five times.
2. Rinse the broom into the PreservCyt Solution vial by pushing
the broom into the bottom of the vial 10 times, forcing the
bristles apart. As a final step, swirl the broom vigorously to
further release material. Discard the collection device.
3. Tighten the cap so that the torque line on the cap passes the
torque line on the vial.
4. Record the patients name and ID number on the vial.
Record the patient information and medical history on the
cytology requisition form.
5. Place the vial and requisition in a specimen bag for
transport to the laboratory.
Directions for Obtaining a Routine Cervical Smear:
1. Do not use lubricating gel.
2. Do not use Q-tip to obtain endocervical cells; consider using
endocervical brush.
3. Do not obtain during menstruation.
4. Obtain a direct scrape of the cervix, preferably at the
junction between exocervix and endocervix; consider adding a
vaginal pool sample to the cervical sample in women over 40
years of age.
5. Follow directions for making Direct Smears.
NOTE: In order to comply with the standards established
by the Bethesda System, the following guidelines will be
followed.
The pap smear will be reported as unsatisfactory with the
following conditions:
1. Smears unlabeled
2. Scant cellularity
3. Poor fixation or preservation. Cells are obscured by
inflammation, foreign material or blood.
4. Not representative of anatomic site.
5. Slides broken beyond repair.
A Gyn pap smear will be considered less than optimal when
there is no endocervical component present.
Directions for Obtaining a Vaginal Smear for Hormonal
Evaluation (Maturation Index):
1. Do not use lubricating gel.
2. Obtain a lateral vaginal wall scrape.
3. Follow directions for making Direct Smears.
Directions for Obtaining Gastrointestinal Tract Washings:
1. Collect fasting specimen and put in labeled container.
2. Inject 300 mL of normal saline rapidly
3. Aspirate as much as possible of the injected saline and place
in labelled container.
4. If possible, repeat steps 2. and 3. with patient in different
positions.
5. Specimens may be pooled or collected separately in
containers of 95% alcohol.
6. Send immediately to lab.
Directions for Obtaining Urine for Cytology:
1. Specimen can be randomly collected anytime.
2. Female patients should be instructed to wash their genitalia
with soap and water prior to collection.
3. Void directly into container with 50% alcohol.
4. Send immediately to the laboratory in securely closed
container.
Note:
INCLUDE PATIENT AGE AND PERTINENT CLINICAL DATA ON THE
REQUEST FORM.
If there are any questions about specimen collection or if you
need to order the container of fixative, call the Laboratory's
Cytology Department.
Pathology, Anatomic
(Biopsies and Surgical Specimens)
General Instructions:
1. Use Surgical Pathology requisition form for all biopsies and
surgical specimens. Relevant clinical information should be
written down in the space provided.
2. Write patient's name on specimen container.
3. Place all tissues immediately in 10% buffered formalin at ten
times the volume of the specimen. Specimen containers with
10% formalin are provided by the laboratory.
4. Send immediately to the laboratory in securely closed
container. For additional information, please contact the
laboratory.
Collection and Transport of Microbiology Specimens
Correct specimen collection and transport of clinical
specimens to the laboratory are extremely important for rapid
and accurate identification of significant microorganisms from
patient samples.
Please send separate test requisitions for each culture.
General Consideration for Collection and Transport:
Use sterile technique and transport to the laboratory as soon
as possible.
Close collection containers securely to prevent leaking of
sample during transport. These specimens are biohazards.
Whenever possible obtain specimens prior to the
administration of antibiotics.
Do not use expired tubes or media for specimen collection.
Please write the patient's name on each specimen container.
Send specimens in one of the following transport systems:
1. Swabs with transport media (culturettes): eye, ear, nose,
stool, strep screen, throat, wounds- give site. (Hold at room
temperature or refrigerate).
2. Non sterile containers: sputum
3. Sterile containers: body fluids (except blood and urine, see
below).
4. Special transport systems:
Blood- 2, 20 mL vacutainer tubes with Supplemented Peptone
Broth.
G.C. Specimens- Urethral discharge or any source: JEMBEC
plates with bag.
Urine- Container with preservative (boric acid) "Boricon"
Parasitology- Special collection kits with Formalin and PVA
Body Fluid Culture (For PD fluid see Peritoneal Fluid):
Pleural, pericardial, and synovial fluids must be aspirated
aseptically. The body site should be disinfected with an
iodophor prior to aspiration. Use sterile technique. Inoculate
into sterile tube or container or blood culture media.
Blood Culture:
Disinfect body site with iodophor prior to venipuncture. Use
sterile technique. Inoculate 2 vacutainer tubes containing 18
mL Supplemented Peptone Broth (SPB) - 2 mL draw. disinfect
top of tubes with alcohol prior to inoculation. Two sets from
separate venipuncture sites recommended.
Eye, Ear:
Collect specimen with a culturette swab. After collection,
place swab back into plastic tube. REFRIGERATE OR LEAVE AT
ROOM TEMPERATURE.
Fluid:
See Body Fluid or Peritoneal Fluid
Fungi:
See Mycology
Environmental (Water and Dialysate) Cultures:
See separate instructions for use of Millipore Sampler
Genital Culture:
Collect these specimens using a Culturette swab. The swab
may be used to culture urethral exudate or inflammation of
the vaginal area. While these specimens are not optimal for
gonococcal isolation, the diagnosis of vaginitis or urethritis
may be made by the recovery of other pathogens. Swabs must
be stored at room temperature until transported to the
laboratory. If Gonorrhoeae is suspected, use Test No. 0075,
Gonorrhea Culture.
Gonorrhea Cultures:
JEMBEC plates are provided for the isolation of Neisseria
gonorrhoeae from rectal, pharyngeal, and genital sites.
JEMBEC plates contain antibiotics to allow the isolation of N.
gonorrhoeae from these heavily contaminated areas and
must be stored at refrigerated temperatures before use.
However, it is important that they be at room temperature at
the time of inoculation because cold temperatures inhibit
growth of gonococci. Exudate is obtained with a sterile swab
and immediately inoculated on the JEMBEC agar. Urethral
discharge may be collected with a swab which is then
immediately streaked onto the agar surface. A CO2
atmosphere is necessary to recover neisseria gonorrhoeae.
This may be performed by placing a CO2 generating
tablet in the small well present in the plate. The plate is then
sealed in a plastic bag. No water is needed to activate the
tablet. ONCE SEALED, THE BAG SHOULD BE STORED AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE UNTIL TRANSPORTED TO THE LABORATORY.
Gonorrhea/Chlamydia DNA Probe:
1. Specimen collection swabs and transport media are supplied
by the laboratory. Remove excess mucus from the cervical os
and surrounding mucosa using one of the swabs provided;
discard this swab.
2. Insert the second swab from the collection kit 1.0 - 1.5 cm
into the endocervical canal.
3. Rotate the swab 30 seconds in the endocervical canal to
ensure adequate sampling.
4. Withdraw the swab, avoiding any contact with the
vaginal mucosa.
5. Insert this swab into the Gen-Probe transport tube, snap off
the shaft at the score-line, cap the tube, and store at 2 - 25C
until tested.
Mycology (Yeast):
Cultures for yeast can be submitted on a Culturette. For fluids
and sputum, best results are obtained by submitting the entire
specimen. If dermatophytes are suspected, the specimen
should be submitted in a dry sterile tube.
Nasal Culture:
A Culturette swab is gently inserted through the nose to the
posterior nasopharynx where it is gently rotated. It should
remain in this position for several seconds. The withdrawal
should be slow to minimize irritation. Place the inoculated
swab into the sterile plastic tubecrush the ampule.
Parasitology Specimens:
Stools for Ova and Parasites should be shipped in Ova and
Parasite kits- 5 gm minimum of stool in EACH of the paired
vials. CLEAR tape preparation or pinworm paddle is
appropriate for submission of specimens for pinworm
examination. Submit intact parasites (insects or worms) in 70%
alcohol.
Peritoneal Fluid or Dialysate Culture:
Disinfect bag's injection sampling port. Use sterile collection
technique. Inoculate 3 mL each into four vacutainer tubes with
SPB (Supplemented Peptone Broth). Disinfect top of tubes with
alcohol prior to inoculation.
Sputum Culture:
Instruct the patient to obtain material from a deep cough
which is expectorated into a sterile container. Sputum
containers are best suited for this collection. The volume of
specimen need not be large (3 mL). Once collected, sputum
should be refrigerated until transport. Be sure that the cap is
tightly sealed on the container once the specimen is collected.
A leaky container is a biohazard.
Stool Culture:
Use Culturette swab. Obtain pea-size feces on swab and place
in culturette.
Throat Culture:
Use Culturette swab to obtain all types of throat specimens.
Rub the sterile swab firmly over the back of the throat
(posterior pharynx), both tonsils or tonsillar fossa, and any
area of inflammation.
Once the specimen is collected, the swab should be
replaced in the plastic tube and the ampule at the base
crushed to wet the swab.
Throat, Group A Strep Screen:
Use Culturette to obtain specimen for Group A Strep only.
Results take one day versus 2 - 3 days for complete culture.
Urine Culture Screen:
Collect a "clean-catch" mid stream urine into a paper cup.
Immediately transfer to Boricon tube with Bacteriostatic
preservative. A first morning specimen is preferable and
should be refrigerated until pick-up.
Note: It is not necessary to collect a specimen for culture in a
sterile cup if the urine is immediately transferred to the
Boricon tube.
Wound Culture:
A superficial wound culture should be collected with a
Culturette swab. After collection, place swab back into plastic
tube, and refrigerate or leave at room temperature until
transport. If the lesion is not open, a sterile needle and syringe
should be employed to remove material. the culturette may
be inoculated with this sample.
Important
Please note that to comply with new Federal requirements
(C.L.I.A. 88). All test requests are to be signed by the ordering
physician and the time and date of the specimen collection are
to be clearly added to the request form.
Note: Reference Ranges are method dependent and may
change if a methodology changes. Check the final report for all
reference ranges.
Operate automated analyzers
An automated analyser is a medical laboratory instrument
designed to measure different chemicals and other
characteristics in a number of biological samples quickly, with
minimal human assistance.
These measured properties of blood and other fluids may be
useful in the diagnosis of disease.
Many methods of introducing samples into the analyser have
been invented. This can involve placing test tubes of sample
into racks, which can be moved along a track, or inserting
tubes into circular carousels that rotate to make the sample
available. Some analysers require samples to be transferred to
sample cups.
However, the effort to protect the health and safety of
laboratory staff has prompted many manufacturers to develop
analysers that feature closed tube sampling, preventing
workers from direct exposure to samples., Samples can be
processed singly, in batches, or continuously.
The automation of laboratory testing does not remove the
need for human expertise (results must still be evaluated by
medical technologists and other qualified clinical laboratory
professionals), but it does ease concerns about error
reduction, staffing concerns, and safety.
Routine biochemistry analysers
These are machines that process a large portion of the
samples going into a hospital or private medical laboratory.
Automation of the testing process has reduced testing time for
many analytes from days to minutes. The history of discrete
sample analysis for the clinical laboratory began with the
introduction of the "Robot Chemist" invented by Hans Baruch
and introduced commercially in 1959.
AutoAnalyzer is an automated analyzer using a special flow
technique named "continuous flow analysis (CFA)", invented
in 1957 by Leonard Skeggs, PhD and first made by the
Technicon Corporation. The first applications were for clinical
(medical) analysis.
The AutoAnalyzer profoundly changed the character of the
chemical testing laboratory by allowing significant increases in
the numbers of samples that could be processed. The design
based on separating a continuously flowing stream with air
bubbles largely reduced slow, clumsy, and error prone manual
methods of analysis.
The types of tests required include enzyme levels (such as
many of the liver function tests), ion levels (e.g. sodium and
potassium, and other tell-tale chemicals (such as glucose,
serum albumin, or creatinine).
Simple ions are often measured with ion selective electrodes,
which let one type of ion through, and measure voltage
differences.
Enzymes may be measured by the rate they change one
coloured substance to another; in these tests, the results for
enzymes are given as an activity, not as a concentration of the
enzyme. Other tests use colorimetric changes to determine the
concentration of the chemical in question. Turbidity may also
be measured.
Immuno-based analysers
Antibodies are used by some analysers to detect many
substances by immunoassay and other reactions that employ
the use of antibody-antigen reactions.
When concentration of these compounds is too low to cause a
measurable increase in turbidity when bound to antibody,
more specialised methods must be used.
Recent developments include automation for the
immunohaematology lab, also known as transfusion medicine.
Hematology analysers
These are used to perform complete blood counts, erythrocyte
sedimentation rates (ESRs), or coagulation tests.
Cell counters
Automated cell counters sample the blood, and quantify,
classify, and describe cell populations using both electrical and
optical techniques. Electrical analysis involves passing a dilute
solution of the blood through an aperture across which an
electrical current is flowing. The passage of cells through the
current changes the impedance between the terminals (the
Coulter principle).
A lytic reagent is added to the blood solution to
selectively lyse the red cells (RBCs), leaving only white cells
(WBCs), and platelets intact. Then the solution is passed
through a second detector. This allows the counts of RBCs,
WBCs, and platelets to be obtained. The platelet count is
easily separated from the WBC count by the smaller
impedance spikes they produce in the detector due to their
lower cell volumes.
Optical detection may be utilised to gain a differential count of
the populations of white cell types. A dilute suspension of
cells is passed through a flow cell, which passes cells one at a
time through a capillary tube past a laser beam. The
reflectance, transmission and scattering of light from each cell
is analysed by sophisticated software giving a numerical
representation of the likely overall distribution of cell
populations.
Some of the latest hematology instruments may report Cell
Population Data that consist in Leukocyte morphological
information that may be used for flagging Cell abnormalities
that trigger the suspect of some diseases.
Reticulocyte counts can now be performed by many analysers,
giving an alternative to time-consuming manual counts. Many
automated reticulocyte counts, like their manual counterparts,
employ the use of a supravital dye such as new methylene blue
to stain the red cells containing reticulin prior to counting.
Some analysers have a modular slide maker which is able to
both produce a blood film of consistent quality and stain the
film, which is then reviewed by a medical laboratory
professional.
Coagulometers
Automated coagulation machines or Coagulometers measure
the ability of blood to clot by performing any of several types
of tests including Partial thromboplastin times, Prothrombin
times (and the calculated INRs commonly used for therapeutic
evaluation), Lupus anticoagulant screens, D dimer assays, and
factor assays.
Coagulometers require blood samples that have been drawn
in tubes containing sodium citrate as an anticoagulant. These
are used because the mechanism behind the anticoagulant
effect of sodium citrate is reversible. Depending on the test,
different substances can be added to the blood plasma to
trigger a clotting reaction.
The progress of clotting may be monitored optically by
measuring the absorbance of a particular wavelength of light by
the sample and how it changes over time.
Other hematology apparatus
Automatic erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) readers, while not
strictly analysers, do preferably have to comply to the 2011-
published CLSI (Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute)
"Procedures for the Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate Test: H02-A5
and to the ICSH (International Council for Standardization in
Haematology) published "ICSH review of the measurement of the
erythrocyte sedimentation rate", both indicating the only
reference method, being Westergren, explicitly indicating the use
of diluted blood (with sodium citrate), in 200 mm pipettes, bore
2.55 mm. After 30 or 60 minutes being in a vertical position, with
no draughts and vibration or direct sunlight allowed, an optical
reader determines how far the red cells have fallen by detecting
the level.
Miscellaneous analysers
Some tests and test categories are unique in their mechanism
or scope, and require a separate analyser for only a few tests,
or even for only one test. Other tests are esoteric in nature
they are performed less frequently than other tests, and are
generally more expensive and time-consuming to perform. Even
so, the current[when?] shortage of qualified clinical laboratory
professionals has spurred manufacturers to develop automated
systems for even these rarely performed tests.
Analysers that fall into this category include instruments that
perform:
DNA labeling and detection
Osmolarity and osmolality measurement
Measurement of glycosylated haemoglobin (haemoglobin A1C),
and Aliquotting and routing of samples throughout the
laboratory
Perform manual tests
In the microbiology laboratory, clinical laboratory scientists use
manual methods to isolate bacteria and fungi on agar media
contained in petri dishes. Colonies of bacteria or fungi that
grow on these agar plates are evaluated visually. Depending
on the source of the sample and the number and appearance
of the organisms that grow, the clinical laboratory scientist
makes the decision as to whether these organisms might be
significant in causing disease. If so, analyses (biochemical,
enzymatic, molecular, etc.) are performed to determine the
actual identity of the infecting organism, and antimicrobial
susceptibility testing is done to determine which antibiotic
should be used for treatment of the infection.
In the microbiology area, the clinical laboratory scientist
uses a variety of skills in conducting assays, including gross
visual evaluation, microscopic evaluation, and use of manual
and automated systems for conducting biochemical and
antimicrobial assays. Assays based on molecular biology
methods are also used.
Therapeutic drug monitoring: Patients who have chronic
illnesses such as diabetes, severe asthma, or seizure disorders
that are controlled by medication are monitored to ensure
that the dose of medication they are using is appropriate. If
the dose of medication is too high, it may cause negative side
effects; if the dose is too low, it may fail to prevent damage
related to the disease. As described above for routine testing,
the number of assays performed each year related to
therapeutic drug monitoring is very high.
Some of these assays are performed on sophisticated
instruments. However, some of these assays require the
clinical laboratory scientist to perform manual testing.
Clinical laboratory scientists in the hematology area perform
analyses by both automated and manual methods. Because
the complete blood count (CBC) is one of the most
commonly-requested assays in the clinical laboratory, there
are large numbers of samples to test. Automating of routine
cell counting allows the clinical laboratory scientist to focus on
the more demanding processes of dealing with samples that
are abnormal and need close scrutiny through the microscope.
Clinical laboratory scientists who work in the transfusion
medicine laboratory use a variety of skills including
microscopic exams, manual assays, and automated assays.
Transfusion medicine is the area of the laboratory most
intimately involved in emergency care of patients who are
bleeding.
You will need tools for manual tests:
- Glass wares (Conical flask- Beaker- funnel- Cylinder- tubes...)
- Pipette with pump
- Micropipette and macropipette & tips
- Chemicals and kits
- Spectrophotometer
Work under the supervision of Medical Laboratory
Technologists or Laboratory Managers
Both technicians and technologists perform tests and
procedures that physicians and surgeons or other healthcare
personnel order. However, technologists perform more
complex tests and laboratory procedures than technicians do.
For example, technologists may prepare specimens and
perform manual tests that are based on detailed instructions,
whereas technicians perform routine tests that may be more
automated. Medical laboratory technicians usually work
under the general supervision of medical laboratory
technologists or laboratory managers.
Policy
With the exception of laboratory assistants, all diagnostic
medical laboratory personnel performing phlebotomy or
diagnostic testing in the health service categories (see
Glossary) of medical laboratory science, must be registered or
in training towards registration.
1. Working under Direction
1.1 A registered medical laboratory technician must always
work under the direction of a medical laboratory scientist or
under the direction of another registered health practitioner
with an appropriate scope of practice (such as a pathologist),
but not another medical laboratory technician.
1.2 The exception to the above is that in Collection
Services (Phlebotomy), direction may be provided through a
supervising medical laboratory technician. However all
medical laboratory technicians involved will be under the
ultimate direction of a medical laboratory scientist or other
registered health practitioner with an appropriate scope of
practice, but not another medical laboratory technician.
1.3 At all times a registered medical laboratory scientist or
technician must practice within his/her area of competence.
1.4. Responsibilities given to a medical laboratory technician,
and the level of direction provided by other registered staff,
must take into account the skill and experience of the
individual technician.
2. Working under Supervision
2.1 Medical laboratory scientist interns are required to work under
supervision for a minimum of six months in an ISO 15189
accredited diagnostic medical laboratory before they may be
issued with an annual practising certificate in the scope of practice
of medical laboratory scientist.
2.2 Graduates of the Graduate Diploma of Science course of study
are required to work under supervision for a minimum of six
months in an ISO 15189 accredited diagnostic medical laboratory
before they may be issued with an annual practising certificate in
the scope of practice of medical laboratory scientist.
2.3 All medical laboratory scientists and medical laboratory
technicians issued with an interim practising certificate will be
required to work under supervision until they have been signed
off by their supervisor as being competent to practice in their
registered scope of practice.
2.4 A registered medical laboratory scientist or medical
laboratory technician may be required to work under
supervision through having a condition placed on his/her
annual practising certificate.
2.5 A registered medical laboratory scientist or technician
returning to the workforce and who has not held an annual
practising certificate or practiced the profession of medical
laboratory science within the last three years, will be required
to work under supervision for a minimum of six months.
2.6 All persons working in a diagnostic medical laboratory prior
to meeting the minimum registration requirement or relevant
experience are regarded as being in training and must work
under supervision.
2.7 The level of supervision provided will depend on the
laboratory procedure being performed and the level of
competence of the person being supervised. However provision
must be made for reasonable access to the supervisor who
must on site
2.8 Unregistered staff may be supervised by a registered
medical laboratory technician with the appropriate skills and
experience providing a medical laboratory scientist or other
registered health practitioner with an appropriate scope of
practice (such as a pathologist) acting as a supervisor (but not
another medical laboratory technician) is also on site and
provides overall supervision.
2.9 Registered medical laboratory science practitioners can
only provide supervision within their area of competence.
2.10 Supervision can only be provided by a registered
practitioner who holds a current annual practising certificate,
and never by a registered practitioner holding an interim
practising certificate or an annual practising certificate that
requires that practitioner to work under supervision.
References
www.wikipedia.org
Presentation: Medical Laboratory Technician role in a laboratory setting
Medical Laboratory Technician Job Description http://www.healthcaresalaryworld.com/medical-laboratory-technician-job-description/
Difference Between Knowledge and Skill http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-between-knowledge-and-skill/
KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICE OF
LABORATORY TECHNICIANS REGARDING UNIVERSAL WORK PRECAUTION- Jitendra Zaveri1, Jigna Karia- NATIONAL JOURNAL OF MEDICAL RESEARCH- Volume 2 Issue 1 Jan March 2012 ISSN 2249 4995
Ethics in the laboratory examination of patients- Tarja Nyrhinen and Helena Leino-Kilpi- Journal of Medical Ethics 2000;26:5460
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1733171/
Code of Ethics http://www.ascls.org/about-us/code-of-ethics
Lab Culture http://grigoriefflab.janelia.org/culture
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Lab Etiquette, Dress Codes, and Safety- Jullie- 2011 http://medtechstudentblog.blogspot.com/2011/11/lab-etiquette-dress-codes-and-safety.html
Why a Medical Laboratory Technician Career is Right For You- Elizabeth Ross- 2013 http://www.rasmussen.edu/degrees/health-sciences/blog/medical-laboratory-technician-career-is-right-for-you/
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Medical Laboratory Technician Program - Student Policy Handbook-
2013- MOBERLY AREA COMMUNITY COLLEGE https://www.macc.edu/images/stories/handbooks/mlt_handbook.pdf
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How To Get Things Done Time and Energy Management http://www.spreeder.com/blog/how-to-get-things-done-time-and-energy-management/
resource management http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/resource-management.html
Articles from: http://www.wisegeek.com
STRESS CHARACTERISTICS- Stress Solutions One City Center www.thestressoflife.com
Stress Management Start Here! http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTCS_00.htm
The 8 Types Of Work-Related Stress http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/09/17/job-killing-you-8-types-o_n_719681.html
Managing Job Stress Overview http://www.webmd.com/balance/stress-management/tc/managing-job-stress-topic-overview
Causes of Stress http://www.webmd.com/balance/stress-management/stress-management-causes-of-stress
Types Of Stress http://www.westminstermedicalclinic.com/prevention/stress/prevention-stress?p=3
Presentation: Laboratory management- PRATIK P POLADIA
Presentation: Laboratory Safety- Dr. Varsha Shahane
Presentation: 3 M LABORATORY SERVICES- IHMR-Bangalore- Compiled By Dr. Ratnesh Pandey
PRESENTATION ON Good Clinical Practice (GCP)- BY- ANUBHAV SINGH- IPR, GLA UNIVERSITY
Develop a career plan https://www.mappingyourfuture.org/planyourcareer/plan.htm
http://www.slideshare.net/uolssds/career-plan-example
45 Plus: Choices in the labour market: Review of literature- University of Business Innovation & Employment
What is a Career?- MCEETYA Career Education Taskforce, 1998 http://education.qld.gov.au/students/service/career/careered-whatis.html
http://www.dol.govt.nz/publications/research/45plus-review/45plus-lit-review_12.asp
Career Information http://www.careerkokua.org/glossary/
stress management http://www.businessballs.com/stressmanagement.htm
Stress http://www.westminstermedicalclinic.com/prevention/stress/prevention-stress?p=3
Medical and Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians http://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/medical-and-clinical-laboratory-technologists-and-technicians.htm
Working Under Supervision or Direction- Policy manual November 2009- Medical Labpratory Science Board
Sources of Career Information
Images Links
http://www.human.de/en/products/clinical-chemistry/instruments-and-systems/automated-analyzer.php
http://store.iqmatrix.com/shop/stress-management
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