Neurobiological

Bases of Behavior
The nervous system and the endocrine
system organize the line of communication
within the body. One area of the brain
communicates to its other parts through
neurons. And one neuron communicates
with another neuron to synchronize a
persons thought, affect and movement.
Communication in the nervous system
takes place also through the secretion of
neurotransmitters which influence
biological functions.

Disturbances in the levels of
secretion of these chemical substances
appear to be associated with certain
mental disorders like schizophrenia,
mania, depression and many more.
The endocrine system also involves
a highly organized communication
process in the body. It monitors the
secretion of chemical substance called
hormones and makes them in harmony
with each other.


Neuron or nerve cell is th basic information
processing structure of the nervous system. it
transmits information throughout the body.
Types:
1. Sensory neuron- recieves information or stimuli
from the environment through sensory cells.
2. Motor neuron- sends electrical output signals to
the muscles.
3. Interneuron- signals another neuron.

a neuron is made up of a cell body(soma), with
its nucleus, and a number of processes called the
dendrites- short cluster of fiber hich recieve
information from another neuron, and
axon which is a single long process that carries
information destined for other neurons send
impulses from the soma to other neurons.

axon hillock commences from the soma as conical
projection and covered by a cellular sheath with an
insulating material called myelin.
synaptic terminal- bulb at the end of an axon in which
neurotransmitter molecules are stored and released.


Neural Impulse
Impulse controls the way we react or respond to a certain stimulus.
Stages of a Neural Impulse:
1. Resting Membrane Potential- in this stage the neuron is said to be
in an inactive state. there are more negative ions inside the cell
membrane and that there are more positive ions outside it. the
charge is about 70 millivolts, and it is ready to fire once it is
stimulated.

2. Action Potential- Once the stimulation reaches a certain threshold
(strength of a stimulus that warrants a response), the neural
membrane opens at one area and allows positively charged ions to
rush in and the negative ions to rush out. At this stage, the internal
state of the neuron becomes less negative until the charge inside the
neuron rises to approximately +40 mv.
3. Absolute Refractory Period- After the action
potential occurs, there is a brief period during which
the neuron is unable to fire. Then, the charge inside the
neuron drops to about -90 mv (refractory period)
because at this stage, the cell membrane does not
admit positive ions. A this stage, a neuron is said to be
repolarized.

4. Relative Refractory Period- this is the stage where
the neurons tries to quickly restore its charge by
pumping out the positively charged ions and bringing
back th negative ones. it is the period where a neuron
may fire depending on the strength of the stimulus.
THE SYNAPSE
A synapse is a connection between neurons. Neurons are
meaningless if they exist alone. They must connect in
order to communicate information. There are different
types of synapse. There is so-called dendrodendritic
connection which is a connection between dendrites of
neighboring neurons. Another type is called
axondendritic where the link is between the axon of one
neuron and the dendrite of another neuron. And the
other one is called axo-axonic where the connection is
between the axons of neurons.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters is the process whereby
neurotransmitters from a sending neuron are released to
the presynaptic cleft and bind to the receptor sites of
another neuron called receiving neuron or post-synaptic
neuron.

The presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter, which
activates receptors on the post-synaptic cell.
Types of Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine (Ach)- found in parts of the peripheral
nervous system, spinal cord, and areas of the brain.
In the PNS, the acetylcholine acts as an axcitatory
neurotransmitter; it activates muscles that help the
body move.
2. Dopamine-neurotransmitter that is involved in
movement, learning, and reinforcement. It has been
associated with several clinical disorders.
Major division of the nervous
system
Peripheral nervous system is made up of all of the
nerves and the writing. This system sends the
messages from the brain to the rest of the body.
PNS is subdivided to somatic and autonomic
nervous system. The former is responsible for the
control of voluntary movements and the
communication of information to and from the
different sense organ.
Autonomic nervous system is concerned with
the parts of the body that function
involuntarily like that of the heart muscle,
which functions without our awareness.
ANS is split into two, namely: sympathetic that
acts to prepare the body in stressful situation,
on the other hand, parasympathetic nervous
system, acts to calm down the body after an
emergency situation, also called vegetative
nervous system.
Central nervous sysytem
It includes two important structures: the
brain-the cephalic or the superior portion and
the spinal cord- the caudal or the inferior
portion.
The brain
The function of the brain include
identification, organization, interpretation and
response generation to sensory stimulation.
Five Major Division of the Brain and Its
Structure
1. Myelencephalon-most inferior division of the
brain, referred as medulla. It is composed of
tracts carrying signals between the rest of
the brain and the body.

2.Metencepahlon- ascending and descending
tracts and part of reticular formation. These
structure collectively make up the pons
which acts as a bridge to pass informtion
regarding movement to the cerebellum.
3. Mecencephalon- contains tectum(roof)
and tegmentum. The tectum is composed of
the inferior colliculli and the superior
colliculli. The tegmentum contains 3
structures: the periaqueductal gray- rich in
smallneuron and is a significant repository of
the naturally occuring opium, morphine,
endorphin.
4. Diencephalon- 2 important structure: the
thalamus- a large, two lobed structure
responsible for relaying message. The
hypothalamus, on the other hand, is found
underneath the thalamus, plays important
role in the regulation of motivated behaviors
since it controls the activities of the
autonomic and the endocrine system.
5. Telencephalon- largest division of the brain
and it mediates the most complex function as
it holds the information- processing capacities
of the brain.
Cerebral Cortex
-thin layer of tissue covering the cerebral
hemisphere. There are 2 cerebral
hemispheres, the right and the left
hemispheres., but they are connected by a
large bundle of fibers called the corpus
callosum. The presence of fissures further
subdivides the hemispheres into four lobes,
namely: the frontal, partial, temporal, and the
occipital lobe.

Cerebral cortex
Limbic System- involved in the regulation
of motivated behaviors like aggresion, sexual
behavior, and eating, among others.
Amygdala-almond-shaped structure
responsible for memories with strong
emotional content.
Hippocampus-keeps track of facts, it is one
which decides whether memories are to be
placed in short term or lng term storage.
Basal ganglia
-the major role played by this structure seems
to be in the area of programming and
executionof movements. Diseases of the basal
ganglia are manifested by tremors and
uncontrolled movements.

Spinal Cord
the spinal cord is the major important part of
the nervous system. It is the most caudal part
of the CNS. It begins at foramen magnumof
the skull and terminates at the lumbar level. It
is subdivided into levels corresponding to the
vertebral regions surrounding it.
Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland or simply, the thyroid, in vertebrate anatomy, is one of the
largest endocrine glands and consists of two connected lobes. The thyroid gland
is found in the neck, below the thyroid cartilage (which forms the laryngeal
prominence, or "Adam's apple"). The thyroid gland controls how quickly the body
uses energy, makes proteins, and controls how sensitive the body is to
other hormones. It participates in these processes by producing thyroid
hormones, the principal ones being triiodothyronine (T
3
)
and thyroxine (sometimes referred to as tetraiodothyronine (T
4
)). These
hormones regulate the growth and rate of function of many other systems in the
body. T
3
and T
4
are synthesized from iodine and tyrosine. The thyroid also
produces calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis.
Hormonal output from the thyroid is regulated by thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH) produced by the anterior pituitary, which itself is regulated
by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) produced by the hypothalamus.

Parathyroid gland
The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck of humans
and other tetrapods that produce parathyroid hormone. Humans usually
have four parathyroid glands, variably located on the back of the thyroid
gland, although considerable variation exists. Parathyroid hormone
and calcitonin (one of the hormones made by the thyroid gland) have key
roles in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the
bones. The parathyroid glands are two pairs of glands usually positioned
behind the left and right lobes of the thyroid. Each gland is a yellowish-
brown flat ovoid that resembles a lentil seed, usually about 6 mm long
and 3 to 4 mm wide, and 1 to 2 mm anteroposteriorly. There are typically
four parathyroid glands. The two parathyroid glands on each side which
are positioned higher are called the superior parathyroid glands, while the
lower two are called the inferior parathyroid glands. Healthy parathyroid
glands generally weight about 30mg in men and 35mg in women.
The major function of the parathyroid glands is to maintain the
body's calcium and phosphate levels within a very narrow range, so
that the nervous and muscular systems can function properly. The
parathyroid glands do this by secreting parathyroid hormone.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH, also known as parathormone) is a
small protein that takes part in the control of calcium and
phosphate homeostasis, as well as bone physiology. Parathyroid
hormone has effects antagonistic to those of calcitonin.
Calcium. PTH increases blood calcium levels by
stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium. PTH
also increases gastrointestinal calcium absorption by activating vitamin
D, and promotes calcium conservation (reabsorption) by the kidneys.
Phosphate. PTH is the major regulator of serum phosphate
concentrations via actions on the kidney. It is an inhibitor of proximal
tubular reabsorption of phosphorus. Through activation of vitamin D
the absorption of Phosphate is increased.

The gonads (sex gland)
The gonad is the organ that makes gametes. The gonads in males are
the testes, and the gonads in females are
the ovaries. spermatozoon and egg cells are gametes. The gonads are
controlled gonadocilly by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. This secretion in
turn is controlled by the hypothalamus' gonadotropin-releasing hormone.
Thymus gland
The thymus is a specialized organ of the immune system. Within the thymus, T-
cells mature.
T cells are critical to the adaptive immune system, where they adapt specifically to
foreign invaders. Each T cell attacks a specific foreign substance which it identifies
with its receptor. T cells have receptors which are generated by randomly shuffling
gene segments. Each T cell attacks a different antigen. T cells that attack the body's
own proteins are eliminated in the thymus. Thymic epithelial cells express major
proteins from elsewhere in the body. First, T cells undergo "Positive Selection"
whereby the cell comes in contact with self-MHC expressed by thymic epithelial cells;
those with no interaction are destroyed. Second, the T cell undergoes "Negative
Selection" by interacting with thymic dendritic cell whereby T cells with high affinity
interaction are eliminated throughapoptosis (to avoid autoimmunity), and those with
intermediate affinity survive.
The thymus is composed of two identical lobes and is located anatomically in the
anterior superior mediastinum, in front of the heart and behind the sternum.

Histologically, each lobe of the thymus can be divided into a
central medulla and a peripheral cortex which is surrounded by an outer
capsule. The cortex and medulla play different roles in the development of
T-cells. Cells in the thymus can be divided into thymicstromal cells and
cells of hematopoietic origin (derived from bone marrow
resident hematopoietic stem cells). Developing T-cells are referred to
as thymocytes and are of hematopoietic origin. Stromal cells include
thymic cortical epithelial cells, thymic medullary epithelial cells,
and dendritic cells.
The thymus provides an inductive environment for development of T-
lymphocytes from hematopoietic progenitor cells. In addition, thymic
stromal cells allow for the selection of a functional and self-tolerant T-cell
repertoire. Therefore, one of the most important roles of the thymus is
the induction of central tolerance.
The thymus is largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-
adolescent periods. By the early teens, the thymus begins toatrophy and
thymic stroma is mostly replaced by adipose (fat) tissue. Nevertheless,
residual T lymphopoiesis continues throughout adult life.


Pancreas
endocrine organ that lies in the abdomen, specifically the upper, left
abdomen. It is found behind the stomach, with the head of the pancreas
surrounded by the duodenum. The pancreas is typically 5.75-9.5 cm long. The
pancreas is divided into a head, which rests within the concavity of the
duodenum, a body lying behind the base of the stomach, and a tail, which
ends abutting the spleen. The neck of the pancreas lies between the body
and head, and is in front of the superior mesenteric artery and vein. The head
of the pancreas surrounds these two vessels, and a small uncinate
processemerges from the lower part of the head, lying behind the superior
mesenteric artery. The pancreas is a secretory structure with a internal
hormonal role (endocrine) and an external digestive role (exocrine). It has
two main ducts, the main pancreatic duct, and the accessory pancreatic duct.
These drain enzymes through the ampulla of Vater into the duodenum.
The part of the pancreas with endocrine function is made up of
approximately a million
[7]
cell clusters called islets of Langerhans. Four
main cell types exist in the islets. They are relatively difficult to distinguish
using standard staining techniques, but they can be classified by their
secretion: alpha cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in blood),
beta cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood), delta
cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops and cells) and PP cells, or
(gamma) cells, secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
the pancreas as an exocrine gland helps out the digestive system. It
secretes pancreatic fluid that contains digestive enzymes that pass to the
small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats) in the chyme.
In humans, the secretory activity of the pancreas is regulated directly via
the effect of hormones in the blood on the islets of Langerhans and
indirectly through the effect of theautonomic nervous system on the
blood flow.
The exocrine component of the pancreas, often called simply
the exocrine pancreas, is the portion of the pancreas that
performs exocrine functions. It has ducts that are arranged in
clusters called acini (singular acinus). Pancreatic secretions are
secreted into the lumen of the acinus, and then accumulate
in intralobular ducts that drain to the mainpancreatic duct,
which drains directly into the duodenum.
Control of the exocrine function of the pancreas is via the
hormones gastrin, cholecystokinin and secretin, which
are hormones secreted by cells in the stomach and duodenum,
in response to distension and/or food and which cause secretion
of pancreatic juices.