Basic hydraulics

Type of flow
Euler/Bernoulli
Velocity profiles
Uniform flow and hydraulic roughness
One-dimensional unsteady flow
Flood wave celerity
Flood wave attenuation
Discharge rating curve
unsteady flow effects
backwater effects
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
STEADY FLOW UNSTEADY FLOW
UNIFORM FLOW NON-UNIFORM FLOW
GRADUALLY
VARIED FLOW
RAPIDLY
VARIED FLOW
TYPES
OF
FLOW
TYPES OF FLOW


|u/x| |u/t| |h/x| |h/t|
steady
0 0
uniform
0 0
non-
uniform
>0 >0
gradually varied small small
rapidly varied large large
unsteady
>0 >0
Euler equations
momentum equations for an
incompressible, non-viscous fluid
Along a streamline (s-direction)

Normal to a streamline
(n-direction = positive in
direction of curvature, radius r)
Normal to s-n plane (b-direction)
1
2

c
| |
=
|
c
\ .
c
c
c
c
2
s
2
s
u +p+ gy 0
u p
+ ( +y) =0
gr n g
p
( +y) =0
b g
s
x
y
s
n
b
y
1
p
1
/g
u
1
2
/2g u
2
2
/2g

p
2
/g
y
2
velocity head
pressure head
1
2
elevation head
total energy head H
e
p
i
e
z
o
m
e
t
r
i
c

h
e
a
d

Euler equations (s-n-b direction) for
steady flow
Bernoulli equation
Valid for: steady, incompressible,
frictionless flow along a streamline
2
s

e
p
H = + +y =
2g g
u
constant
Integration along a streamline (s-direction)
If flow is irrotational, expression is valid throughout the flow field: potential flow
Euler for n-direction
Normal to a streamline
(n-direction = positive in
direction of curvature, radius r)

c
c
2
s
u p
+ ( +y) =0
gr n g
Pn
1
2
+n
hydrostatic pressure distribution

} }
}
2 2
2
s
1 1
2
2
s
2 1
1
2 1 2 1
2 1
u
d(Pn) =- dn
gr
u
Pn - Pn = - dn
gr
So: Pn - Pn <0 or : Pn <Pn
If : r then: Pn =Pn
+n
hydrostatic
u
S
0
1
2
y
1
y
2

~
2 1
2 1
2 1
1 2 1 2
2 0
Since: r : Pn =Pn
p p
Or : +y = +y
g g
p =0 so: p = g(y - y )
Or : p = ghcos(S ) gh
convex
concave
parallel flow
h
c
o
s
(
S
0
)

Examples n-direction
Example for s-direction
Along a streamline (s-direction)

=
2
s
e
u p
H = + +y constant
2g g
y=0
u
1
1 2
h
H
u
2
=0
h

1
2
2
1
1
p = gh
p = g(h+H)
u
+h =h+H
2g
u = 2gH
1
H
1

2 2
1 1 2 2
1
1 2 1 2
2 1
u p u p
+ +H = + +0
2g g 2g g
p =p =0 and u <<u
u = 2gH
2
Total energy head of an open
channel cross-section
total energy per unit of
volume:
average flow velocity in
cross-section:
average kinetic energy in
cross-section:
straight parallel
streamlines in n-b-
direction:
average energy per unit
volume through cross-
section:
in terms of head:
2
1
2
u p gy + +
Q
u
A
=
2 2
1 1
2 2
u u o =
p gy + =

constant
Pn = water surface
2
1
2
E u p gy o = + +
2
2
u p
H y
g g
o

= + +
H
h
1
h
2
=2/3H
u
2
2
/2g=1/3H
u
1
2
/2g
u
Broad crested weir
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Long or broad crested weir
h
c
= critical depth
energy head
Fr > 1 super-
critical flow
Fr < 1 sub-
critical flow
o ~ 1
( )
( )
( )
o

| |
`
|
\ .
)

2
1/2 2
2
2 2
1/2
2
2 2 2
-1/2
1/2
max 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 c
u
H= +h u = 2g H- h
2g
q =u h q = 2g . h H- h
dq 1
q if : = 0 = 2g H- h ) +h H- h (-1)
dh 2
1 2
H- h = h or : h = H=h
2 3
L
broad crested weir:
0.08<H
1
/L<0.50
( )

1/2
2
2
2 c
1/2 3/2 3/2
2
u = 2g H- h
2
h = H=h
3
2 2 2
u = g H q = g H Q=1.7BH
3 3 3
H
h
1
h
2
=2/3H
u
2
2
/2g=1/3H
u
1
2
/2g
u
Broad crested weir (2)
Long or broad crested weir
energy head
Fr > 1 super-
critical flow
Fr < 1 sub-
critical flow
c c
u = gh
u
Fr =
gh
Fr<1: sub-critical flow
Fr=1: critical flow
Fr>1: super-critical flow
mind the power of H!! hydrostatic pressure
distribution
pressure
distribution
streamline
short crested weir
+n
1
2
y
2
p
2
/g
u
2
2
/2g u
1
2
/2g
y
1
H

}
2 2
s
2 1
1
2
2 2 1 1
u
Pn - Pn = - dn
gr
p
Pn = +y ; Pn = y
g

}
2 2
s
2 1 2
1
2 1
u
p = g(y - y ) - dn
r
u >u
SHORT CRESTED WEIR
short crested weirs
have higher discharge
coefficients than broad
crested weirs
Modular and non-modular flow
Modular flow: reduction in channel cross-
section creates critical flow above weir crest:
Q = f
1
(H
upstream
)
Non-modular flow: flow above weir crest
remains sub-critical:
Q = f
2
(H
upstream
,H
downstream
)
Submergence ratio:
S = 100H
downstream
/H
upstream

Modular limit S
L
is transition between modular
(S<S
L
) and non-modular flow (S>S
L
)
H is measured from the weir crest

u1 u2 u3
gradual
| > 6
normal
| < 6
sudden
| << 6

u
1
2
/2g
(u
2
2
/2g-u
1
2
/2g)
u
1
2
/2g
(u
2
2
/2g-u
1
2
/2g)

u
1
2
/2g
~ 1 sudden expansion ; Carnot: AH=(u
2
-u
1
)
2
/2g
energy head
u
2
2
/2g
u
2
2
/2g
u
2
2
/2g
u
3
2
/2g
u
3
2
/2g
u
3
2
/2g
energy loss
energy loss
Energy loss due to expansion
= 0 very gradual expansion
water level
Velocity profiles
laminar and turbulent flow
velocity profile: laminar flow
v
2
0
w
gS 1
u(y) = (h y - y )
2
v
2
w 0 0
g
u = h S so: u:: S
3
t v
y
du
=
dy
t
v
y w 0
0
w
= g(h - y)S
gS
du= (h - y)dy
g(h
w
-y)
h
w
t
y
S
0
Newtons
law of
viscosity
t v t t
t c
y L T
T
du
= - u'v' = +
dy
du
=
dy
Turbulent
flow
v
w
uh
Re =
<600 laminar
600-2000 transitional
> 2000 turbulent
Reynolds number
c = eddy viscosity coefficient [m
2
/s]
v = kinematic viscosity coefficient
time
time
averaged
velocity

u=deviation from
time averaged
velocity
U
U=u+u
turbulent and viscous sublayers
for a smooth riverbed
b
o
t
t
o
m

l
a
y
e
r

o
u
t
e
r

l
a
y
e
r

turbulent outer layer
turbulent logarithmic layer
transition layer
viscous sublayer
h
w
v(y)
y
0.2 h
w
Definition of shear stress velocity u
*
u
*
=shear stress velocity [m/s]
( ) 1
( )
b
t
t
t

t t
t t
=

| |
=
|
\ .
~
2
b *
b w 0
b w 0
* * w 0
w
w b
Define: = u
gh S
gh S
u = = u = gh S
y
Generally : y
h
Near the bed: y <<h : y
t t
t v v
v

2
b * 2
*
2
*
= u
u
du = dy
du
v' =0 so: =
dy
u
u(y) = y
(1) Very near to the bed:
y ~ 0 and v
1
= 0 in the laminar sublayer:
Laminar sublayer near river bed
(2) At larger distance from the bed
|v
1
| > 0 and t
T
>> t
L
but y << h
w

mixing length
Velocity profile above laminar
sublayer near river bed
eddy viscosity
:
t t
t c c k
k k
~
| |

|
\ .
2
y b *
y *
* *
0
= u
du
= where = u = y
dy
u u dy y
du = u(y) = ln
y y
Transition
zone
Laminar
sub-layer
o
v(y)
y
y
0
11.6v/u
-
5v/u
-
30v/u
-
Logarithmic profile
Transitional profile
Linear profile
Fully
developed
turbulent flow
u(y)
v
2
*
u
u(y) = y
k
| |
|
\ .
*
0
u y
u(y) = ln
y
t t
k k
t c c k
k k

| | | |
| |
| |
\ . \ .

` |
| |
\ .

|

\ .
)
2
b *
w w
* *
0
*
w
w
y y
(y) = 1- = u 1-
h h
u u du y
du = u(y) = ln
dy y
du y
(y) = with: = y 1- u
dy h
y
by assuming: = y 1- instead of : = y
h
Velocity profile for outer layer
Experiments show applicability of logarithmic profile in
outer layer:
assumption to arrive at
logarithmic profile
=maximum at y = 2/3 h
w

where = 0.15 h
w
( )
( )
0
w
h
y
k
k
k
k k
k
| |
|
\ .
| |
|
\ .

| | | |

=
` ` | |

\ . \ .
) )
| |
~
|
\ .
}
}
w 0
*
0
*
w 0
h /y
0 *
w 1
0 0 * w w w * w
w 0 0 0 0 w
* w
w w
0
u y
u(y) = ln
y
u 1 y
u = ln dy
h y
y u
u = ln z dz
h
y y u h h h u h
u = ln - - 1ln1-1 ln -1+
h y y y y h
u h 1
u ln u(y) = u at : y = h = 0.37h
e.y e
Average velocity

}
0
0
w
0
Generally : ln(z)dz = z ln(z) - z
y
Introduce: z = dy = y dz
y
h
boundaries : 1;
y
Note: :: S
0
1/2
u
o
u
o
k
s
Hydraulically smooth and
rough
hydraulically smooth hydraulically rough
k
s
k
s
<< o k
s
>> o
viscous
flow
k
s
y
0
k
| |
|
\ .
*
0
u y
u(y) = ln
y
if: k
s
>> o then:
bed is hydraulically rough
no viscous sublayer present
y
k
s
= Nikuradses equivalent sand roughness
velocity profile hydraulically rough bed
flow velocities for smooth and rough
beds
k k
o
o
k o
k o
o
k
k
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .
| |
~
|
\ .
| |
|
\ .
| |
~
|
\ .
| |
|
\ .
* *
0 0
*
s 0
* w
s *
s 0
s
* w
s
u u y y
u(y) = ln and: u = ln 0.368
y y
u 117y
if : k < 0.3 smooth bed y u(y) = ln
117
u 12h
u = ln
/3.5
k u 32y
if : k > 6 rough bed y u(y) = ln
32 k
u 12h
u = ln
k
Average flow velocity for smooth and
rough beds
o o
k o
k o
o
o
| |
s s
|
\ .
| |

|
\ .
| |
|
\ .
| |

|
\ .

* w
s
s
w
* w 0 w 0
s
w
w 0
s
w
w 0
s
0
u 12h
if : 0.3 k 6 : transition: u = ln
k + /3.5
g 12h
with: u = gh S u = ln h S
k + /3.5
12h
or : u =18log h S
k + /3.5
12h
u = C h S with: C=18log
k + /3.5
for arbitrary cross- section:
u = C RS with:
o
| |
|
\ . s
12R A
C=18log where: R =
k + /3.5 P
Chezy
and
White-Colebrook
smooth or rough
v
o
v
o
o
o
~
~
*
o -6 2
-4
w 0 *
-6
-4
s
s
11.6
=
u
assume: temp =10 C then: =1.3x10 m /s
h = 5 m and S = 2x10 hence: u = 0.099 m/s
11.6 x 1.3x10
so: = =1.5x10 m=150m
0.099
smooth bed: k < 0.3 45m
rough bed: k > 6 900m
Example
= thickness of laminar sublayer
0 w
u gh S
-
=
plane sand bed k
s
~ 3D
90
; gravel bed k
s
~ D
90
D90
Boven Rijn 8 mm
Waal 7 - 1 mm
PK 9 mm
Nederrijn-Lek 6-1.4 mm
IJssel 9-1 mm
Hence, in all cases for Rhine
branches k
s
= 3 D90 3 mm
bed is hydraulically rough
In the delta this will be different
Minimum sand roughness for Rhine
branches
logarithmic velocity profiles
Uniform flow and hydraulic
roughness
Uniform flow and hydraulic roughness

| |
|
\ .
| |
|
\ .
| |

|
\ .
0
1/6
2/3 1/2
0
s
1/6
s
1/6
1/6
1/6
s
s
Chezy : u = C RS
1 R
Manning: u = R S C=
n n
12R
White- Colebrook : C=18log (rough bed)
k
R
Strickler : C= 25
k
R R
C= = 25 n = 0.04k
n k
2
8
Darcy Weisbach
g
f
C

=
f = dimensionless
friction coefficient
2
0
2
b
u
gRS g
C
t = =
Comparison of C-values according to
White-Colebrook and Strickler
Relation between Nikuradses k
s
and
Mannings n
Some practical relations for k
s
s 90
k =3D
~
s 90
k D
u
Plane sand bed
Gravel bed
Dune/ripple covered bed
| |
| |
~
| |
\ .
\ .
~ ~
~
~
s
s
s
H
k 1.1H 1- exp -25
L
H
ripples : 0.1 k H
L
H
dunes : 0.05- 0.01
L
k 0.8H- 0.2H
h
w
Hydraulic roughness as function of
dune/ripple dimensions
Extrapolation of hydraulic roughness to
design conditions (1)
u u
u
u

u
v
A
| |
|
\ .
A
A
| |
|
\ .
cr
cr
2 2
g
50
g
90
s w
w
cr *
* 50
2
' -
T =
u /C
with: ' =
D
12R
C =18log
3D
-
= =1.65
= f(D )
g
D = D
D
x
u
c
r

T = transport stage parameter
Shields
curve
Extrapolation of hydraulic roughness to
design conditions (2)
legend
Extrapolation of hydraulic roughness to
design conditions (3)
van Rijn for dune covered bed
Remarks: 1. c
1
and c
2
highly variable
2. Since D
50
decreases in downstream direction, so will k
s
3. Experience shows (2) not always true
4. Hence, always calibration on local conditions!!!
( )
{ }
| |
| |
| |
\ .
\ .

s
0.3 0.7
1 50 w 1 50 w 1
0.3 0.3
2 50 w 2 50 w 2
0.7 -0.3 0.3 0.3
s w w 50 50
H
k =1.1H 1- exp -25
L
H= f (D ,h ,T) but for T > 5: H= c D h with: c = 2.5
H H
= f (D ,h ,T) but for T > 5: = c D h with: c = 0.4
L L
k = h 1- exp -h with: = 3D =10D
One-dimensional unsteady
flow equations or de Saint
Venant equations
A
s
Total cross-
sectional area = A
y
b
h
q
storage
area
B
s
B
Reference level
Conveying
cross-section
Definition sketch de Saint Venant equations
h
w
h
w
(t+dt)
h
w
(t)
control volume
q
h
w
S
0
s
n
ds
s
s+ds
Q

Q+c/c
s(
Q)ds
Q=f
Q
(t,s)
A=f
A
(t,s)
A Q
q
t s
c c
+ =
c c
Continuity equation
h
w
(t+dt)
h
w
(t)
control volum
e
q
h
w
S
0
s
n
ds
s
s+ds
Q
p
p+cp/c
s.ds
GcosS
0
G
GsinS
0
t
b
t
w
Momentum equation
( )
0
2
( )
0
s s b s w
s
d
mu
dt
Q
Q
t s
F
p
A gA S P
A
B
s
t t
| |
c c
+
|
c c
=
c
+ +
\
c
.
=
Momentum equation
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 = local acceleration
2 = convective acceleration
3 = pressure gradient
4 = gravity component
5 = bottom shear stress
6 = wind shear stress
( )
0
2 2
0 0
2
2
2
2
2 2
0
( )
1
(
:
)
:
s s b s w
w
w s s
b b
s
s s
b
s
s
s s
s
F
p
A gA S P B
s
h p
p g h n A gA
s s
u Q
gRS and u C RS g g
C C A
Q Q
A A
R P P g
P R C A R
after d
d
mu
dt
ivisio
Q
Q
t s A
n by gA
Q Q
gA t s A
t t

t t
t

=
c
+ + =
c
c c
= =
c c
= = = =
= = =

| |
c c

+
` |
c c

\ .
| |
c c
+
|
c c
\ .
)

0
2 2
0
w s
w
s s
Q Q
h B
S
s gA C A R
t

c
+ + =
c

Momentum equation
hydrostatic pressure
distribution
from uniform flow
2
0
2 2
1 1
0
w
s s s s
Q Q
h Q Q
S
gA t gA s A s C A R
| |
c c c
+ + + =
|
c c c
\ .
Kinematic
Diffusive
Dynamic
Type
of
wave
2
2 2
1 1 9
( 2 )
4
;
/
w
s s s
s
s w
h Q Q
b b Fr
gA t gA s A s
B u u
Fr b
B
gA B gh
| | c c c
+ ~ +
|
c c c
\ .
= ~ =
if Fr
2
<<1
then acc.terms << ch
w
/cs
Froude number
Translation
w
c u gh =
dQ
c
dA
=
0
0
: 0
:
:
:
s
w
s
A Q
Continuity
t s
Momentum
kinematic Q CA RS
h
diffusive Q CA R S
s
c c
+ =
c c
- =
c
| |
- =
|
c
\ .
no lateral inflow (q=0) and Fr
2
<<1
Simplified de Saint Venant equations
difference between A and A
s
Flood wave celerity
A
s
Total cross-
sectional area = A
y
b
h
q
storage
area
B
s
B
Reference level
Conveying
cross-section
Definition sketch cross-section for celerity
h
w
profile at t
profile at t + At
Q
2
A
2
Q
1
A
1
A
2
-A
1
s1
>u
Flood wave
celerity
( )
( )
2 1 2 1
2 1
2 1
) ( .
1
w w w
w
s s w
s w w
s
w
w
Q Q dt A A c dt
Q Q Q dQ
c
A A A dA
dA Bdh h dB Bdh
dQ dQ
c
dA B dh
Q A u B h u
dQ B udh h du
B du
c u h
B dh
=
A
= = =
A
= + ~
= ~
= ~
= +
| |
= +
|
\ .
3/ 2 1/ 2
0 0 0
2/ 3 1/ 2 5/ 3 1/ 2 2/ 3 1/ 2
0 0 0
1
3 3
: .
2 2
3
2
1 1 5 1 5
: .
3 3
5
3
w
s s w s w s
w
s
s s w s w s
w
s
dQ dQ
c
dA B dh
dQ
Chezy Q CA RS CB h S B C h S B u
dh
B
c u
B
dQ
Manning Q A R S B h S B h S B u
n n dh n
B
c u
B
= ~
= ~ = =
~
= ~ = =
~
Flood wave celerity
B1 B2 B3
B
u1
u2
u3
dA=Bdh

h1
h2
h3
storage
storage
( )
3/ 2 1/ 2 3/ 2 1/ 2 3/ 2 1/ 2
1 1 1 0 2 2 2 0 3 3 3 0
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
1 1 1 0 2 2 2 0 3 3 3 0
1 1 2
2
2 3 3
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 1 3 3 2 2
1
3 3 3
2 2 2
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 3 1
2
: :
3
2
dQ dQ
c
dA B dh
Q C B h S C B h S C B h S
dQ
B C h S B C h S B C h S
dh
dQ
B u B u B u
dh
dQ
c B u B u B u
B dh B
if B u and B
B
c u
B
B u u
= ~
= + +
= + +
= + +
~ = + +
< ~ <
Flood wave celerity in compound cross-section
C u Bu
1 34 0.48 192
2 53 1.39 139
3 19 0.19 57
B1 B2 B3
B
u1
u2
u3
dA=Bdh

h1
h2
h3
storage
storage
( )
1 1 2 2 3 3
3 1
2
c B u B u B u
B
~ + +
k
s
h B
1 0.3 2 400
2 0.1 7 100
3 1 1 300
B= 1000 m S
0
=10
-4
1/ 2
1
4
1 1 0
12 12 2
18log 18log 34 /
0.3
34 2 10 0.48
s
h x
C m s
k
u C hS x

| |
| |
= = =
|
|
\ .
\ .
= = =
( )
3 1
400 0.48 100 1.39 300 0.19 0.58 /
2 1000
3 100
1.39 0.21 /
2 1000
c x x x m s
c m s
~ + + =
~ =
Flood wave celerity in compound cross-section
Flood wave attenuation
0
0
5
3
0 0
: 0
:
: . .
12 , 2 / 3 / 3 12 3600 130
3
3 4.6 10
1
65000
2
: 10 :
s
w
w w
w
w
A Q
Continuity
t s
Momentum Q CA RS
h
applicable when S i e steep rivers
s
T hrs u m s c m s L cT x x km
h h
h m x
s
L
h
If S then S
s

c c
+ =
c c
=
c
<<
c
= = = = = ~
c A
A = ~ = ~
c
c
= <<
c
Kinematic wave
Ah
w
flood wave
characteristics
Kinematic wave
: 0 : . 0
0 : 0
:
0 :
A Q dA Q Q
Continuity or
t s dQ t s
Q dQ Q Q Q
or c
t dA s t s
dQ Q ds Q
total derivative of Q
dt t dt s
dQ ds
for c
dt dt
c c c c
+ = + =
c c c c
c c c c
+ = + =
c c c c
c c
= +
c c
= =
wave propagates
without damping
Wave attenuation
0
: 0
:
w
s
A Q
Continuity
t s
h
Momentum Q CA R S
s
c c
+ =
c c
c
| |
=
|
c
\ .
0
w
h
s
c
>
c
0
w
h
s
c
<
c
S
0
diffusive wave
Diffusive wave
( )
2
2
0
2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2 2
2
2
max
3 2
3
: :
2
2
:
: 0 0
1 1
: :
/
4
/ ' : .
27
s
w
s
B Q Q Q Q
c D with c u and D
h t s B s
B S
s
dQ Q ds
D for c
dt dt s
Q dQ
near wave crest wave attenuation
dt s
dQ dQ Q Q
with and
ds c dt s c t
B B
dQ D Q
attenuation m
ds c t
c c c
+ = ~ =
c c c c | |

|
c
\ .
c
= =
c
c
< < =
c
c c
= ~
c c
c
~ =
c
2
2 2 2
0
.
Q
C S t
c
c
Wave attenuation
river geometry
wave characteristics
Q
0
T
2a
0
Q
t
( )
( )
2
2
max
2 2 2
0
0 0
2 2
0
2 2
max
2
2
max 0
2 2 2
0
/
4
. .
27
: ( ) 1 cos 2
4
/
16
. .
27
s
Q
s
B B
dQ Q
ds C S t
t
Q t Q a
T
a Q
t T
B B
dQ a
ds C S T
t
t
t
c
~
c
| |
| |
= +
| |
\ .
\ .
| |
c
=
|
c
\ .
~
Cosinus- wave
CAPACITY LIMITATIONS
Chopping versus
attenuation
Q
Q
Example wave propagation and attenuation (1)
storage
( )
1/ 2
4
0
2
max 0
2 2 2
0
2
max
2
12 12 7
18log 18log 47 /
0.2
47 7 4.10 2.5 /
3 3 1
2.5 1.9 / 6.8 /
2 1 2 2
100 100/ 6.8 15
1/
: 5.85 .
2
5.85
47 (4.1
w
s
w
s
s
h x
C m s
k
u C h S x m s
B
c u x x m s km hrs
B
travel time km hrs
B B
dQ a
attenuation
ds C S T
dQ
ds

| |
| |
= = =
|
|
\ .
\ .
= = =
= = = =
= =
=
=
3 3
4 2 2
3 3 max
1000
. 10 / / '
0 ) (3 86400)
1 / / 100 100 /
m s m
x
dQ
m s km over km attenuation m s
ds

=
= =
Dimensions:
S
0
= 4x10
-4
h
w
= 7 m
k
s
= 0.20 m
B1 = 2 x B
s
a
0
= 1000 m
3
/s
T = 3 days
A
B
100 km
B1
B
s
h
w
( )
( ) ( )
2
max 0
2 2 2
0
2 2
max max max
3
2
1 1 1 1 1
:: ; ::
2 1 2 2 1 2
100 15 2 30
/
: 5.85 .
2
:: 2 ; :: 1
1
s
new old new old new old old
s
new old new
B
c u
B
B B
c c c c c c c
B B B B
travel time km x hrs
B B
dQ a
attenuation
ds C S T
dQ dQ dQ B
B B
ds ds ds B
=
= = =
= =
=
| | | | | | | |
=
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
2
max
3 max max
4 100 4 100 400 /
old
new old
dQ
ds
dQ dQ
over km attenuation x m s
ds ds
| |
|
\ .
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
Example wave propagation and attenuation (2)
storage conveying
B
s
h
w
B = B2 = 2B1
Example wave propagation and attenuation (3)
storage
conveying
B
s
h
w,old
B = B
s
=1/2B
old
B1
h
w,new
1/ 6 2/ 3
0
2/ 3
2/ 3 2/ 3
, , ,
,
2/ 3
max
3
: :: ::
2
:: ; ::
2 (1.5) 2.6
100 15 / 2.6 5.7
: 5
s
w w w
w new w old w new
old
new old new old
new old new w old
new old old
B
c u where u C h S and C h u h
B
h h h
B
c c c c
B B B h
c x c c
travel time km hrs
dQ
attenuation
ds
= =
| |
=
|
|
\ .
= =
= =
=
( )
( )
( )
2
0
2 2 2
0
1/ 3
2 2
,
max max max
1/ 3
,
,
3 max max
/
.85 .
:: ;
0.22 100 0.22 100 22 /
s
w old new
new
old w new new new old
w new
new old
B B
a
C S T
h B
dQ dQ B dQ
ds ds B h ds
h
dQ dQ
over km attenuation x m s
ds ds
| |
| |
| | | | | |
=
|
|
| | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
\ .
\ .
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
Discharge rating curve
Unsteady flow effects
Backwater effects
Q
control section
h
Q
control section = section that
controls the water level at the
gauging site for a particular
discharge
gauging
station
STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATION
discharge
rating curve
STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATION
GENERAL:
Q = c(h + a)
b


DEVIATIONS FROM RATING
CURVE:
MEASUREMENT ERROR
(about 5%)
UNSTEADY FLOW
BACKWATER EFFECT
CHANGING PROFILE
AND/OR ROUGHNESS IN
CONTROL SECTION
DOWNSTREAM OF
MEASURING POINT
AQ
h
Q
Note: c,a and b
parameters of
rating curve
have a physical
meaning
EFFECT UNSTEADY FLOW:
JONES FORMULA
Q
s
0
0
0 0
0
1 1
. 1 1
0 : 0
1
0
1 1
: :
1
: 1
w
s w
w w
s w s
w w
w
w w
w
w w
w
s
h
Q CA h S
s
h h
Q CA h S Q
S s S s
h h A Q dQ
or B
t s t dh s
h h dQ
t B dh s
h h dQ
or with c
B dh s c t
h
so Q Q
S c t
c
| |
=
|
c
\ .
c c
= =
c c
c c c c
+ = + =
c c c c
c c
+ =
c c
c c
~ ~
c c
c
~ +
c
detail
cQ/ct=0
c h/ct = c Q/cs=0
ch/ cx=0
h

Q
actual
assumed in
Q=c(h+a)
b
Unsteady flow effect on rating curve
Extrapolation of discharge rating curve
Though various methods are applied, (like
double log-extrapolation the only reliable
method is based on application of the
Manning or Chezy equation for the control
section (river and flood plain)!!!

Characteristic cross-section(s) of the
control section may differ substantially
from the cross-section at the measuring
location, particularly when measurements
take place from bridges
Q
control section
h
Q
gauging
station
Backwater effect on discharge
rating curve
backwater free
discharge
rating curve
backwater
affected
measurements
h
n
2
2
2
2
3 3
0
3 3
1/ 3
2
2
0
1/ 3
2
1
0 :
2
/ 0
2
: .
: :
: :
w b
w w n
w c
n
c
u u
u u h
with h h y
g t x g x C R
for steady flow u t
u u
d u
h
dx g C R
dh h h
also S
dx h h
q
with normal flow depth h
C S
q
and critical flow depth h
g
| |
c c c
+ + + = = +
|
c c c
\ .
c c =
| |
+ =
|
\ .

| |
=
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
Blanger equation
x
y
h
w
y
b
h u
d
e

S
a
i
n
t

V
e
n
a
n
t

i
n

u

q=uh
w
Example
h
e
=5 m, S
0
=1.5x10
-4

then:
BW
=11 km
Backwater effects

A = A
| |
= =
|
\ .
A
A
L 0
BW
2/3
n
BW n
1/2
0 s 0
BW 0
n
BW 0 0.95
0
L
h h exp( )
h Q
with: and: h
3S CB S
for L = then 63% reduction of h
h
for L = 3 then 95% reduction of h : L =
S
h
e

Ah
0

Ah
L
L
S
0

First order approximation of
M1 backwater equation, F<<1
L
h
n
Example of backwater computation
h
n1
h
n2
A=h
n2
-h
n1
L2
L1
B
C=A-B
B1
B2
D
cross-
section F-F
longitudinal profile
plan view
Q
F
F
river encroachment
direction for backwater computation
Example backwater computation(2)
2/ 3
3/ 2 1/ 2
1 0 1
1/ 2
1 0
2/ 3 2/ 3
1 1
2 1 2 1 1
2 2
2
2
2 0
1
1
1 0
1
2
exp :
3
1
exp :
3
n
n n n n n
n
BW
BW
n
BW
BW
Q
Q CB h S h
CB S
B B
h h A h h h
B B
h L
B A with
S
C A B
h L
D C with
S

| |
= =
|
\ .
| |
| | | |
|
= = =
| |
|
\ . \ .
\ .
| |
= =
|
\ .
=
| |
= =
|
\ .
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Example of backwater computation
h
n1
h
n2
A=h
n2
-h
n1
L2
L1
B
C=A-B
D
dS
cap
/dx
sedimentation erosion sedimentation
IMMEDIATE EFFECT OF
ENCROACHMENT ON
SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT CAPACITY
Q
gauging
site on
tributary
> h
n
/S
0
or accept twin gauge
approach to account
for backwater by
measuring the fall to
estimate the slope
Implications of backwater on location of gauging station
A
? B
C
gated
weir
sedimentation
gauging
site
Effects:
1: direct effect due to backwater created by the gated weir
2: in the course of time: change in hydraulic characteristics of control
due to sedimentation
Hence: at the gauging site no unique stage-discharge relation, with
a gradually changing discharge rating curve for the backwater free
curve
Direct and gradual effect of backwater on stage-
discharge relation