CHAPTER THREE: IRRIGATION

CHAPTER THREE: IRRIGATION

METHODS AND DESIGNS
METHODS AND DESIGNS

3.1 IRRIGATION METHODS

a) Surface Irrigation: Just flooding water. About 90% of the

irrigatedareasintheworldarebythismethod.

) S!rin"#er Irrigation:Applyingwaterunderpressure.About5%
oftheirrigatedareasarebythismethod.

c) Dri! or Tric"#e Irrigation:Applyingwaterslowlytothesoilideally

atthesameratewithcropconsumption.

$) Su%Surface Irrigation: Flooding water underground and

allowingittocomeupbycapillaritytocroproots.

3.& S'R(ACE IRRIGATION
3.& S'R(ACE IRRIGATION

Waterisappliedtothefieldineitherthecontrolledor
uncontrolledmanner.

Contro##e$: Water is applied from the head ditch

and guided by corrugations, furrows, borders, or
ridges.

'ncontro##e$:Wildflooding.

urfaceirrigationisentirelypractisedwherewateris
abundant.!helowinitialcostofde"elopmentislater
offsetbyhighlabourcostofapplyingwater.!here
aredeeppercolation,runoffanddrainageproblems

3.&.1 (urro) Irrigation
3.&.1 (urro) Irrigation

#n furrow irrigation, only a part of the land surface

$the furrow% is wetted thus minimi&ing e"aporation
loss.

Furrowirrigationisadaptedforrowcropsli'ecorn,
banana,tobacco, and cabbage. #tis also goodfor
grains.

#rrigation can be by corrugation using small

irrigationstreams.

Furrowirrigationisadaptedforirrigatingon"arious
slopes e(cept on steep ones because of erosion
andban'o"erflow.

Furrow#rrigation)ontd.
Furrow#rrigation)ontd.

!herearedifferentwaysofapplyingwatertothefurrow.

AsshowninFig.*.+,siphonsareusedtodi"ertwaterfromthe
headditchtothefurrows.

!herecanalsobedirectgra"ityflowwherebywaterisdeli"ered
fromthe head ditch to the furrows by cutting theridgeor le"ee
separating the head ditch and the furrows $see diagram from
,umb-sboo'%.

,ated pipes can also be used. .arge portable pipe$up to /50

mm% with gate openings spaced to deli"er water to the furrows
areused.

Waterispumpedfromthewatersourceinclosedconduits.

!heopeningsofthegatedpipecanberegulatedtocontrolthe
dischargerateintothefurrows.

Furrow#rrigationby)utting
Furrow#rrigationby)utting
the0idge
the0idge

Furrow#rrigationwithiphons
Furrow#rrigationwithiphons

Fig.*.+1AFurrowystem
Fig.*.+1AFurrowystem

3.&.1.1 De*ign Para+eter* of
3.&.1.1 De*ign Para+eter* of
(urro) Irrigation
(urro) Irrigation

!he2a3or4esign)onsiderationsinurface#rrigation#nclude1

toring the 0eadily A"ailable 2oisture in the 0oot 5one, if

6ossible7

8btainingAs9niformWaterApplicationAs6ossible7

2inimi&ingoil:rosionbyApplying;on<erosi"etreams7

2inimi&ing 0unoff at the :nd of the Furrow by 9sing a 0e<use

ystemora)ut<=ac'tream7

2inimi&ing .abour 0e>uirements by ?a"ing ,ood .and

6reparation,

,ood4esignand:(perienced.abourand

Facilitating 9se of 2achinery for .and 6reparation, )ulti"ation,

Furrowing,?ar"esting:tc.

Furrow#rrigation)ontd.
Furrow#rrigation)ontd.

!he pecific 4esign 6arameters of Furrow

#rrigation Are Aimed at Achie"ing the Abo"e
8b3ecti"esand#nclude1

a) S,a!e an$ S!acing of (urro)*: ?eights

ofridges"arybetween+5cmand/0cmand
the distance between the ridges should be
basedontheoptimumcropspacingmodified,
if necessary to obtain ade>uate lateral
wetting, and to accommodate the trac' of
mechanicale>uipment.

!herangeofspacingcommonlyusedisfrom
0.*to+.@mwith+.0masthea"erage.

4esign6arametersofFurrow
4esign6arametersofFurrow
#rrigation)ontd.
#rrigation)ontd.

) Se#ection of t,e A$-ance or Initia# (urro)

Strea+1 #n permeable soils, the ma(imum non<
erosi"e flow within the furrow capacity can be used
so as to enable wetting of the end of the furrow to
beginassoonaspossible.

!hema(imumnon<erosi"eflow$A
m
%isgi"enby1A
m

BcCwherecisaconstantB0.DwhenA
m
isin
lCsandisslopein%.

E.a+!#e 11 For a soil slope of 0.+ %, the A

m
is
0.DC0.+BDlCs.

4esign6arametersofFurrow
4esign6arametersofFurrow
#rrigation)ontd.
#rrigation)ontd.

!heactualstreamsi&eshouldbedeterminedbyfieldtests.

#tisdesirablethatthisinitialstreamsi&ereachestheendof
the furrow in!C/ time where!is the total time re>uired to
applythere>uiredirrigationdepth.

c) Cut%ac" Strea+: !hisisthestreamsi&etowhichthe

initialstreamisreducedsometimeafterithasreachedthe
lowerendofthefield.

!hisistoreducesoilerosion.

8neortwocutbac'scanbecarriedoutandremo"ing
somesiphonsorreducingthesi&eattheheadofthefurrow
achie"esthis.

4esign6arametersofFurrow
4esign6arametersofFurrow
#rrigation)ontd.
#rrigation)ontd.

$) (ie#$ S#o!e: !o reduce costs of land

grading,longitudinalandcrossslopesshould
beadaptedtothenaturaltopography.

mallcrossslopescanbetolerated.

!o reduce erosion problems during rainfall,

furrows $which channel the runoff% should
ha"ealimitedslope$see!able*.+%.

Ta#e 3.1 : Ma.i+u+ S#o!e* for /ariou* Soi# T0!e* Ta#e 3.1 : Ma.i+u+ S#o!e* for /ariou* Soi# T0!e*
Soi# T0!e Ma.i+u+ *#o!e*1
and0.E5
andyloam 0./0
Finesandyloam 0.50
)layE.50
.oam D.E5
Source: 2it,er* 3 /i!on$ 41567)

FAminimumslopeofabout0.05%isre>uired
toensuresurfacedrainage.

4esign6arametersofFurrow
4esign6arametersofFurrow
#rrigation)ontd.
#rrigation)ontd.

e) (urro) 8engt,: Gery long lengths

lead to a lot of deep percolation
in"ol"ingo"er<irrigationattheupperend
of the furrow and under<irrigation at the
lowerend.

!ypical "alues are gi"en in !able *.E,

but actual furrow lengths should be got
fromfieldtests.

4esign6arametersofFurrow
4esign6arametersofFurrow
#rrigation)ontd.
#rrigation)ontd.

e) (ie#$ 2i$t,*: Widths are fle(ible

but should not be of a si&e to enclose
"ariablesoiltypes.

!he widths should depend on land

gradingpermissible.

3.&.1.& E-a#uation of a (urro)
3.&.1.& E-a#uation of a (urro)
Irrigation S0*te+
Irrigation S0*te+

!he ob3ecti"e is to determine fairly accurately how

the system is used and to suggest possible
amendmentsorchanges.

E9ui!+ent1:ngineers.e"elandtaff,

*0m!ape,

2ar'erta'es,

iphonsofGariousi&es,

!womall2easuringFlumes,

Watchwithecond?andandpade.

E-a#uation of a (urro) Irrigation
E-a#uation of a (urro) Irrigation
S0*te+
S0*te+
Contd.
Contd.

Proce$ure

a% elect se"eral $say * or more% uniform test furrows which

shouldbetypicalofthoseinthearea.

b% 2easure the a"erage furrow spacing and note the shape,

conditionetc.

c%etthemar'ersta'esat*0minter"alsdownthefurrows.

d%!a'ele"elsateachsta'eanddeterminethea"erageslope.

e%ettheflumessay*0mapartattheheadofthemiddlefurrow.

f%6assconstantflowstreamsdownthefurrows,usingwiderange
of flows. !he largest flow should 3ust cause erosion and
o"ertopping, the smallest might 3ust reach the end of the furrow.
!hemedianstreamshouldha"eadischargeofaboutAB*C/
$lCs%whereisthe%slope.

:"aluationofaFurrow#rrigation
:"aluationofaFurrow#rrigation
ystem)ontd.
ystem)ontd.

g%0ecordthetimewhenflowstartsandpasseseachmar'erineachflow$ad"ance
data%.

h% 0ecord the flow at each flume periodically until the flows become practically
constant.!hismayta'ese"eralhoursonfinete(turedsoils$#nfiltrationdata%.

i%)hec'fore"idenceoferosionoro"ertopping.

3%2o"etheflumesandmeasurethestreamsattheheadsonlyoftheotherfurrows.

Re*u#t*1!obepresentedinaformatshown1

............................................................................................................

Watch8pportunitytime$mins%

tationAtation=.osses

!imeA=)4epthFlow4epthFlow4iff#nfil.

$mm%$.Cs%$mm%$.Cs%$.Cs%$mmCh%

..............................................................................................................

*.E.E.=order#rrigationystem
*.E.E.=order#rrigationystem

#n a border irrigation, controlled surface flooding is

practised whereby the field is di"ided up into strips by
parallel ridges or dy'es and each strip is irrigated
separately by introducing water upstream and it
progressi"elyco"erstheentirestrip.

=order irrigation is suited for crops that can withstand

floodingforashorttimee.g.wheat.

#t can be used for all crops pro"ided that the system is

designated to pro"ide the needed water control for
irrigationofcrops.

#tissuitedtosoilsbetweene(tremelyhighand"erylow
infiltrationrates.

=order#rrigationystem
=order#rrigationystem

=order#rrigation
=order#rrigation

=order#rrigation)ontd.
=order#rrigation)ontd.

#nborderirrigation,waterisappliedslowly.

!he root &one is applied water gradually

downthefield.

At a time, the application flow is cut<off to

reducewaterloses.

#deally, there is no runoff and deep

percolation.

!he problem is that the time to cut off the

inflowisdifficulttodetermine.

3.&.&.& De*ign Para+eter* of
3.&.&.& De*ign Para+eter* of
:or$er Irrigation S0*te+
:or$er Irrigation S0*te+

a) Stri! )i$t,: )rossslopesmustbeeliminatedbyle"eling.

ince there are no furrows to restrict lateral mo"ement, any

cross slope will ma'e water mo"e down one side leading to
poorapplicationefficiencyandpossiblyerosion.

!he stream si&e a"ailable should also be considered in

choosingastripwidth.

!he si&e shouldbeenough to allowcomplete lateral spreading

throughoutthelengthofthestrip.

!he width of the strip for a gi"en water supply is a function of

thelength$!able*.5%.

!hestripwidthshouldbeatleastbiggerthanthesi&eof"ehicle
tractforconstructionwhereapplicable.

4esign6arametersof=order
4esign6arametersof=order
#rrigationystem)ontd.
#rrigationystem)ontd.

) Stri! S#o!e: .ongitudinalslopesshouldbealmostsameas

forthefurrowirrigation.

c) Con*truction of 8e-ee*: .e"ees should be big enough to

withstanderosion,andofsufficientheighttocontaintheirrigation
stream.

$) Se#ection of t,e A$-ance Strea+:!hema(imumad"ance

stream used should be non<erosi"e and therefore depends on
the protection afforded by the crop co"er. )lay soils are less
susceptible to erosion but suffer surface panning at high water
"elocities. !able *./ gi"es the ma(imum flows recommendable
forbaresoils.

e) T,e 8engt, of t,e Stri!1 !ypical lengths and widths for

"arious flows are gi"en in !able *.5. !he ideal lengths can be
obtainedbyfieldtests.



3.&.&.3 E-a#uation of a :or$er
3.&.&.3 E-a#uation of a :or$er
Stri!
Stri!

!heaimisto"ary"ariousparameterswiththeaimof
obtainingagoodirrigationprofile.

Ste!*

a% 2easure the infiltration rate of soils and get the

cumulati"einfiltrationcur"e.2easurementcanbeby
doubleringinfiltrometer.
Depth of Water,
D (mm)
Time, T (mins)
D = KT
n
Fig 3.5: Cumulative nfiltration Curve

:"aluationof=ordertrip)ontd.
:"aluationof=ordertrip)ontd.

b% 2ar' some points on the border strip and chec'

the ad"ance of water. Also chec' recession. For
steep slopes, recession of water can be seen unli'e
in gentle slopes where it may be difficult to see. #n
borderirrigation,recessionis"eryimportantbecause
unli'e furrows, there is no place water can seep into
afterwateristurnedoff.

!ime4istance4iagramofthe
!ime4istance4iagramofthe
=orderystem
=orderystem

:"aluationofthe=orderystem
:"aluationofthe=orderystem
)ontd.
)ontd.

About two<thirds down the border, the flow is turned

offandrecessionstarts.

!he difference between the ad"ance and recession

cur"es gi"es the opportunity time or total time when
waterisincontactwiththesoil.

For "arious distances, obtain the opportunity times

from the ad"anceCrecession cur"es and from the
cumulati"e infiltration cur"e, obtain the depths of
water.

With the depth and distance data, plot the irrigation

profiledepthshownbelow.

4epth<4istance4iagramofthe
4epth<4istance4iagramofthe
=orderystem
=orderystem

:"aluationofthe=orderystem
:"aluationofthe=orderystem
)ontd.
)ontd.

!he depth of irrigation obtained is compared with the 24

$idealirrigationdepth%.

!hereisdeeppercolationandrunoffattheendofthefield.

!he"ariablescanthenbechangedtogi"edifferentshapesof
graphstoseetheonetoreducerunoffanddeeppercolation.#n
this particular case abo"e, the inflow can be stopped sooner.
!herecessioncur"ethenchanges.

!he profile now obtained creates deficiency at the ends of the

borders$seegraph1dottedliesabo"e%.

Agood profile of irrigation can be obtained by "arying the flow,

which leads to a change in the recession cur"e, and by
choosing a reasonable contact time each time using the
infiltrationcur"e.

3.&.3 :a*in Irrigation S0*te+
3.&.3 :a*in Irrigation S0*te+

3.&.3.1 De*cri!tion: #n basin irrigation, water is

floodedinwiderareas.#tisidealforirrigatingrice.

!heareaisnormallyflat.

#n basin irrigation, a "ery high stream si&e is

introduced into the basin so that rapid mo"ement of
waterisobtained.

Waterdoesnotinfiltratealotinitially.

At the end, a bond is put and water can pond the

field.

!he opportunity time difference between the upward

andthedownwardendsarereduced.

=asin#rrigation4iagram
=asin#rrigation4iagram

rrigation time.

3.&.3.& Si;e of :a*in*
3.&.3.& Si;e of :a*in*

!he si&e of basin is related to stream si&e and soil type$ee!able *.D
below%.

Ta#e 3.<: Sugge*te$ a*in area* for $ifferent *oi# t0!e* an$ rate* of )ater f#o)

(#o) rate Soi# T0!e

San$ San$0 #oa+ C#a0 #oa+ C#a0

#=* +
3
=,r .................Hectare*................................

*0 +0@ 0.0E 0.0D 0.+E 0.E0

D0 E+D 0.0/ 0.+E 0.E/ 0./0

90 *E/ 0.0D 0.+@ 0.*D 0.D0

+E0 /*E 0.0@ 0.E/ 0./@ 0.@0

+50 5/0 0.+0 0.*0 0.D0 +.00

+@0 D/@ 0.+E 0.*D 0.HE +.E0

E+0 H5D 0.+/ 0./E 0.@/ +./0

E/0 @D/ 0.+D 0./@ 0.9D +.D0

*00 +0@0 0.E0 0.D0 +.E0 E.00

...........................................................................................

Note:!hesi&eofbasinforclaysis+0timesthatofsandastheinfiltrationrateforclayislowleadingto
higherirrigationtime.!hesi&eofbasinalsoincreasesastheflowrateincreases.!hetableisonlyaguide
andpractical"aluesfromanareashouldbereliedupon.!hereistheneedforfielde"aluation.

3.&.3.3 E-a#uation of :a*in
3.&.3.3 E-a#uation of :a*in
S0*te+
S0*te+

a%)alculatethesoilmoisturedeficiencyandirrigationdepth.

b% ,et the cumulati"e infiltration using either single or double

ringinfiltrometer.
= ! T
n
Time (mins)
nfiltere"
Depth (mm)

:"aluationofa=asinystem
:"aluationofa=asinystem
)ontd.
)ontd.

c% ,et the ad"ance cur"es using stic's to monitor rate

of water mo"ement. 6lot a time "ersus distance graph
$ad"ancecur"e%.Alsoplotrecessioncur"eorassumeit
tobestraight

#tisensuredthatwaterreachestheendofthebasinat
!C/ time and stays ! time before it disappears. At any
point on the ad"ance and recession cur"es, get the
contact or opportunity time and relate it to the depth<
timegraphabo"eto'nowtheamountofwaterthathas
infiltratedatanydistance.

Ti+e%Di*tance Gra!, of t,e :a*in
Ti+e%Di*tance Gra!, of t,e :a*in
S0*te+
S0*te+

4epth<4istance,raphsofthe=asin
4epth<4istance,raphsofthe=asin
#rrigationystem
#rrigationystem

:"aluationof=asin#rrigation
:"aluationof=asin#rrigation
)oncluded.
)oncluded.

)hec' the deficiency and decide

whetherimpro"ementsarenecessaryor
not. !he !C/ time can be increased or
flowratechanged.!herecessioncur"e
may not be a straight line but a cur"e
duetosomelowpointsinthebasin.

3.3 SPRIN>8ER IRRIGATION
3.3 SPRIN>8ER IRRIGATION

3.3.1 Intro$uction: !hesprin'lersystemisidealin

areaswherewaterisscarce.

A prin'ler system con"eys water through pipes and

appliesitwithaminimumamountoflosses.

Water is applied in form of sprays sometimes

simulatingnaturalrainfall.

!he differenceisthat thisrainfall can be controlled in

durationandintensity.

#fwellplanned,designedandoperated,itcanbeused
inslopinglandtoreduceerosionwhereothersystems
arenotpossible.

)omponentsofaprin'ler
)omponentsofaprin'ler
#rrigationystem
#rrigationystem

3.3.& T0!e* of Con-entiona#
3.3.& T0!e* of Con-entiona#
S!rin"#er S0*te+*
S!rin"#er S0*te+*

a) (u##0 !orta#e *0*te+: !he laterals, mains,

sub<mainsandthepumpingplantareallportable.

!hesystemisdesignedtobemo"edfromonefield
to another or other pumping sites that are in the
samefield.

) Se+i%!orta#e *0*te+: Water source and

pumpingplantarefi(edinlocations.

8thercomponentscanbemo"ed.

!he system cannot be mo"ed from field to field or

from farm to farm e(cept when more than one fi(ed
pumpingplantisused.

T0!e* of Con-entiona# S!rin"#er
T0!e* of Con-entiona# S!rin"#er
S0*te+* Cont$.
S0*te+* Cont$.

c) (u##0 !er+anent *0*te+: 6ermanent laterals,

mains,sub<mainsaswellasfi(edpumpingplant.

ometimeslateralsandmainlinesmaybeburied.

!he sprin'ler may be permanently located or mo"ed

alongthelateral.

#t can be used on permanent irrigation fields and for

relati"ely high "alue crops e.g. 8rchards and
"ineyards.

.aboursa"ingsthroughoutthelifeofthesystemmay
lateroffsethighinstallationcost.

3.3.3 Moi#e S!rin"#er T0!e*
3.3.3 Moi#e S!rin"#er T0!e*

a) Raingun: A mobile machine with a big

sprin'ler.

!he speed of the machine determines the

application rate. !he sprin'ler has a powerful
3etsystem.

) 8atera# Mo-e: A mobile long boom with

manysprin'lersattachedtothem.

Asthemachinemo"es,itcollectswaterfroma
canal into the sprin'lers connected to the long
boom.

0aingun#rrigationystem
0aingun#rrigationystem

.inear2o"e
.inear2o"e

)entre6i"ot
)entre6i"ot

c) Centre Pi-ot: !he source of water

is stationary e.g. a bore hole. !he
boom with many sprin'lers rotates
aboutthewatersource.

)entre6i"ot
)entre6i"ot

6i"otofa)entre6i"otystem
6i"otofa)entre6i"otystem

3.3.7 De*ign of S!rin"#er
3.3.7 De*ign of S!rin"#er
Irrigation S0*te+
Irrigation S0*te+

Objectives and Procedures

#rovi"e $uffi!ient Flo% Capa!it& to meet

the rrigation Deman"

'nsure that the (east rrigate" #lant

re!eives a"e)uate Water

'nsure *niform Distri+ution of Water.

4esignteps
4esignteps

Determine rrigation Water ,e)uirements

an" rrigation $!he"ule

Determine T&pe an" $pa!ing of $prin-lers

#repare (a&out of .ainline, $u+mains an"

(aterals

Design #ipe%or- an" sele!t /alves an"

Fittings

Determine #umping ,e)uirements.

)hoiceofprin'lerystem
)hoiceofprin'lerystem

Consi"er:

0ppli!ation rate or pre!ipitation rate

*niformit& of 0ppli!ation: *se *C

Drop $i1e Distri+ution an"

Cost

prin'lerApplication0ate
prin'lerApplication0ate

.ust +e (ess than nta-e ,ates

$oil Te2ture .a2. 0ppln. ,ates
(mm3hr.)
Coarse $an" 45 to 65
Fine $an" 74 to 45
$an"& (oam 74
$ilt (oam 75
Cla& (oam3Cla& 5 to 8

:ffectsofWind
:ffectsofWind

n !ase of Win":

,e"u!e the spa!ing +et%een $prin-lers:

$ee ta+le 9 in Te2t.

0llign $prin-ler (aterals a!ross prevailing

%in" "ire!tions

:uil" '2tra Capa!it&

$ele!t ,otar& $prin-lers %ith a lo%

tra;e!tor& angle.

ystem.ayout
ystem.ayout

(a&out is "etermine" +& the #h&si!al Features of the

$ite e.g. Fiel" $hape an" $i1e, <+sta!les, an"
topograph& an" the t&pe of ')uipment !hosen.

Where there are several possi+ilities of preparing the

la&out, a !ost !riteria !an +e applie" to the alternatives.

(aterals shoul" +e as long as site "imensions, pressure

an" pipe "iameter restri!tions %ill allo%.

(aterals of =5 mm to 755 mm "iameter !an easil& +e

move".

't!. > $ee te2t for other !onsi"erations

6ipewor'4esign
6ipewor'4esign

This involves the $ele!tion of #ipe $i1es to

ensure that a"e)uate %ater !an +e
"istri+ute" as uniforml& as possi+le
throughout the s&stem

#ressure variations in the s&stem are -ept as

lo% as possi+le as an& !hanges in pressure
ma& affe!t the "is!harge at the sprin-lers

4esignof.aterals
4esignof.aterals

(aterals suppl& %ater to the $prin-lers

#ipe $i1es are !hosen to minimi1e the pressure

variations along the (ateral, "ue to Fri!tion an"
'levation Changes.

$ele!t a #ipe $i1e %hi!h limits the total pressure

!hange to 45? of the "esign operating pressure of
the $prin-ler.

This limits overall variations in $prin-ler

Dis!harge to 75?.

.ateral4ischarge
.ateral4ischarge

The Dis!harge (@
(
) in a (ateral is "efine"
as the flo% at the hea" of the lateral %here
%ater is ta-en from the mainline or
su+main.

Thus: @
(
= A. )
(
Where A is the num+er
of sprin-lers on the lateral an" )
(
is the
$prin-ler "is!harge (m
3
3h)

electing.ateral6ipei&es
electing.ateral6ipei&es

Fri!tion (oss in a (ateral is less than that in a

#ipeline %here all the flo% passes through the
entire pipe (ength +e!ause flo% !hanges at ever&
sprin-ler along the (ine.

First Compute the Fri!tion (oss in the #ipe

assuming no $prin-lers using a Fri!tion Formula
or Charts an" then:

0ppl& a Fa!tor, F +ase" on the num+er of

$prin-lers on the (ateral ($ee Te2t for F /alues)

electing.ateral6ipei&es
electing.ateral6ipei&es
)ontd.
)ontd.

(ateral #ipe $i1e !an +e "etermine" as follo%s:

Cal!ulate 45? of $prin-ler <perating #ressure

(#a)

Divi"e /alue +& F for the num+er of $prin-lers to

o+tain 0llo%a+le #ressure (oss (#
f
)

*se Aormal #ipeline Bea" (oss Charts of Fri!tion

Formulae %ith Cal!ulate" #
f
an" @
(
to "etermine
#ipe Diameter, D.

)hangesin,round:le"ation
)hangesin,round:le"ation

0llo%an!e must +e ma"e for #ressure

!hanges along the (ateral %hen it is uphill,
"o%nhill or over un"ulating lan".

f #e
7
is the #ressure Differen!e Due to
'levation !hanges:
downhill laid laterals for
F
P P
P
uphill laid laterals for
F
P P
P
eL a
f
eL a
f
+
=

=
4 . 5
4 . 5

6ressureat?eadof.ateral
6ressureat?eadof.ateral

The #ressure re)uirements (#

(
)%here the (ateral
;oins the .ainline or $u+main are "etermine" as
follo%s:

#
(
= #a C 5.=5 #
f
C #r For laterals lai" on Flat
lan"

#
(
= #a C 5.=5 (#
f
#e) C #r For (aterals on
gra"ient.

The fa!tor 5.=5 is to provi"e for average operating

pressure (#a) at the !entre of the (ateral rather than
at the "istal en". #r is the height of the riser.

4iagramof6ressureat?eadof.ateral
4iagramof6ressureat?eadof.ateral

electing6ipei&esof
electing6ipei&esof
ubmainsand2ain.ines
ubmainsand2ain.ines

0s a general rule, for pumpe" s&stems, the

.a2imum #ressure (oss in +oth .ainlines an"
$u+mains shoul" not e2!ee" 35? of the total
pumping hea" re)uire".

This is reasona+le starting point for the

preliminar& "esign.

0llo%an!e shoul" +e ma"e for pressure !hanges in

the mainline an" su+main %hen the& are uphill,
"o%nhill or un"ulating.

6umping0e>uirements
6umping0e>uirements

.a2imum Dis!harge (@p) = )s A Where:

)s is the $prin-ler Dis!harge an"

A is the total num+er of $prin-lers operating at

one time "uring irrigation !&!le.

The .a2imum #ressure to operate the s&stem

(Total D&nami! Bea", #p) is given as sho%n in
'2ample.

3.7 DRIP OR TRIC>8E
3.7 DRIP OR TRIC>8E
IRRIGATION
IRRIGATION

3.7.1 Intro$uction: #nthisirrigationsystem1

i% Water is applied directly to the crop ie. entire field is not

wetted.

ii%Waterisconser"ed

$iii%Weedsarecontrolledbecauseonlytheplacesgettingwater
cangrowweeds.

$i"%!hereisalowpressuresystem.

$"%!hereisaslowrateofwaterapplicationsomewhatmatching
the consumpti"e use. Application rate can be as low as + < +E
lChr.

$"i%!hereisreducede"aporation,onlypotentialtranspirationis
considered.

"ii%!hereisnoneedforadrainagesystem.

)omponentsofa4rip
)omponentsofa4rip
#rrigationystem
#rrigationystem
Control
Bea"
*nit
Wetting #attern
'mitter
(ateral
.ainline
<r
.anifol"

4rip#rrigationystem
4rip#rrigationystem

!he 2a3or )omponents of a 4rip

#rrigationysteminclude1

a) Hea$ unit which contains filters to

remo"e debris that may bloc' emitters7
fertili&er tan'7 water meter7 and
pressureregulator.

) Main#ine? 8atera#*? an$ E+itter*

whichcanbeeasilybloc'ed.

3.7.& 2ater '*e for Tric"#e
3.7.& 2ater '*e for Tric"#e
Irrigation S0*te+
Irrigation S0*te+

!hedesignofdripsystemissimilartothatof
thesprin'lersysteme(ceptthatthespacing
ofemittersismuchlessthanthatofsprin'lers
andthatwatermustbefilteredandtreatedto
pre"entbloc'ageofemitters.

Anotherma3ordifferenceisthatnotallareas
areirrigated.

#ndesign,thewateruserateorthearea
irrigatedmaybedecreasedtoaccountforthis
reducedarea.

2ater '*e for Tric"#e Irrigation
2ater '*e for Tric"#e Irrigation
S0*te+
S0*te+
Contd.
Contd.

IarmeliandIeller$+9H5%suggestedthe

followingwateruseratefortric'leirrigationdesign

:!
t
B:!(6C@5

Where1 :!
t
is a"erage e"apotranspiration rate for crops under
tric'leirrigation7

6isthepercentageofthetotalareashadedbycrops7

:!isthecon"entionale"apotranspirationrateforthecrop.:.g.#f
a mature orchard shades H0% of the area and the con"entional
:!isHmmCday,thetric'leirrigationdesignrateis1

HC+(H0C@5B5.@mmCday

80 use potential transpiration, !

p
B 0.H :
pan
where :
pan
is the
e"aporationfromthe9nitedtates)lassApan.

:mitters
:mitters

)onsistoffi(edtypeand"ariablesi&etypes.!he
fi(ed si&e emitters do not ha"e a mechanism to
compensate for the friction induced pressure drop
along the lateral whilethe "ariablesi&e typesha"e
it.

:mitterdischargemaybedescribedby1

>BIh
(

Where1>istheemitterdischarge7Iisconstantfor
each emitter 7 h is pressure head at which the
emitter operates and ( is the e(ponent
characteri&edbytheflowregime.

:mitters)ontd.
:mitters)ontd.

!he e(ponent, ( can be determined by

measuring the slope of the log<log plot of head
Gsdischarge.

With ( 'nown, I can be determined using the

abo"ee>uation.

4ischarges are normally determined from the

manufacturer-scharts$seeFig.*.Hin;ote%.

3.7.7 2ater Di*triution fro+
3.7.7 2ater Di*triution fro+
E+itter*
E+itter*

:mitter discharge "ariability is greater than that of

sprin'lerno&&lesbecauseofsmalleropenings$lowerflow%
andlowerdesignpressures.

:uB+<$0.@)"Cn
0.5
%

Where :u is emitter uniformity7 )" is manufacturer-s

coefficient of "ariation$sC( %7 n is the number of emitters
perplant.

Applicationefficiencyfortric'leirrigationisdefinedas1

:
ea
B:u(:a(+00

Where:
ea
isthetric'leirrigationefficiency7:aisthe
applicationefficiencyasdefinedearlier.

3
3
.7.@ Tric"#e S0*te+ De*ign
.7.@ Tric"#e S0*te+ De*ign

T,e $ia+eter of t,e #atera# *,ou#$ e *e#ecte$ *o

t,at t,e $ifference in $i*c,arge et)een e+itter*
o!erating *i+u#taneou*#0 )i## not e.cee$ 1A B.

T,i* a##o)a#e -ariation i* *a+e a* for *!rin"#er

irrigation #atera#* a#rea$0 $i*cu**e$.

To *ta0 )it,in t,i* 1A B -ariation in f#o)? t,e

,ea$ $ifference et)een e+itter* *,ou#$ not
e.cee$ 1A to 1@ B of t,e a-erage o!erating ,ea$
for #ong%!at, or &A B for turu#ent f#o) e+itter*.

!ric'leystem4esign)ontd.
!ric'leystem4esign)ontd.

!hema(imumdifferenceinpressureis
theheadlossbetweenthecontrolpoint
attheinletandthepressureatthe
emitterfarthestfromtheinlet.

!heinletisusuallyatthemanifold
wherethepressureisregulated.

!hemanifoldisalinetowhichthe
tric'lelateralsareconnected.

!ric'leystem4esign)ontd.
!ric'leystem4esign)ontd.

For minimum cost, on a le"el area 55 % of the allowable head

lossshouldbeallocatedtothelateraland/5%tothemanifold.

!he Friction .oss for 2ains and ub<mains can be computed

from 4arcy<Weisbach e>uation for smooth pipes in tric'le
systems when combined with the =lasius e>uation for friction
factor.

!hee>uationis1

?
f
BI.A
+.H5
4
J/.H5

Where1?
f
isthefrictionlossinm7

IisconstantBH.@9(+0
5
for.#.unitsforwateratE0K)7

.isthepipelengthinm7

AisthetotalpipeflowinlCs7and

4istheinternaldiameterofpipeinmm.

!ric'leystem4esign)ontd
!ric'leystem4esign)ontd

As with sprin'ler design, F should be

used to compute head loss for laterals
and manifolds with multiple outlets, by
multiplyingasuitableFfactor

$ee !able @ of prin'ler 4esign

section%byheadloss.

F "alues shown below can also be

used.

Ta#e 3.6: Correction (actor? ( for
Ta#e 3.6: Correction (actor? ( for
(riction 8o**e* in A#u+iniu+ Pi!e*
(riction 8o**e* in A#u+iniu+ Pi!e*
)it, Mu#ti!#e Out#et*.
)it, Mu#ti!#e Out#et*.

Nu+er of Out#et* (1

+ +.00

E 0.5+

/ 0./+

D 0.*@

@ 0.*H

+E 0.*D

+D 0.*D

E0 0.*5

*0ormore 0.*5

1/a#ue* a$a!te$ fro+ Cen*en an$ (rantini 415@6

:(ample
:(ample

Design a Trickle Irrigation System for a full&

mature" or!har" %ith the la&out +elo%. 0ssume that
the fiel" is level, ma2imum time for irrigation is 12
hours per day, allo%a+le pressure variation in the
emitters is 15%, the ma2imum su!tion lift at the %ell
is 20 m, the 'T rate is 7 mm/day an" the mature"
or!har" sha"es 70% of the areaD tri!-le irrigation
effi!ien!& is 85?. $e!tions 7 an" 4 are to +e irrigate"
at the same time an" alternate" %ith se!tions 3 an" 6.
'a!h tree is to +e supplie" +& 6 emitters.

.AL89!8F!?:!0#)I.:
.AL89!8F!?:!0#)I.:
#00#,A!#8;L!:2
#00#,A!#8;L!:2

olution
olution

(7) 'Tt = 'T 2 #385

Where: 'tt is the average 'T for !rops

un"er tri!-le irrigation (mm3"a&)

'T is nomal 'T rate for the !rop = =

mm3"a&

# is the per!entage of total ares sha"e" +&

the !rop = =5?

'Tt = = mm3"a& 2 =5385 = 5.8 mm/day.

olution)ontd.
olution)ontd.

(4) Dis!harge for ea!h tree %ith a spa!ing of 6 m 2 = m

= 6 m 2 = m 2 5.8 2 75
>3
m3"a& = 5.794 m
3
3"a&

= 5.559=5 m
3
3hr (46 hr. "a&)

For 74 hours of opearation per "a&, "is!harge re)uire"

= 5.559=5 2 46374 = 5.5735 m

3
3hr = 5.553=5 (3s

With an applian!e effi!ien!& of 85?, the re)uire"

"is!harge per tree is: 5.553=535.8 = 5.556= (3s

The "is!harge per emitter, %ith 6 emitters per tree is then:

= 5.556=36 = 5.55778 (3s = 5.5574 (3s

4ischargeof:ach.ine
4ischargeof:ach.ine
(ine Ao. of
Trees
Ao. of
'mitters
,e)uire"
Dis!harge
((3s)
Balf (ateral 74 68 5.55=9
Balf
.anifol"
798 9=4 5.8595
$u+main, 0
to $e!tion 7
339 7366 7.9735
.ain, 0 to
#ump
9=4 4988 3.4495

olution)ontd.
olution)ontd.

(6) From Fig. 47.9 ($oil an" Water

Conservation), sele!t the me"ium long>path
emitter %ith K = 5.5555=3 an" 2 = 5.93

$u+stituting in e)uation ) = K h
2
, %ith an
average "is!harge of 5.5574 (3s,

(og ) = log K C 2 log h

93 . 5
5555=3 . 5 5574 . 5 Log Log
x
Log ! Log
h Log

=

=
h = 8= -#a or 8.E m ( or use Chart to o+tain h). This is the
0verage operating hea", Ba.

olution)ontd.
olution)ontd.

(5) Total allo%a+le pressure loss of 75 ? of Ba in

+oth the (ateral an" .anifol" = 8.E 2 5.75 =7.3 m
of %hi!h 5.55 2 7.3 = 5.= m is allo%e" for (ateral
an" 5.65 2 7.3 = 5.9 is for the .anifol".

(9) Compute the Fri!tion (oss in ea!h of the (ines

from ')uation:

B
f
= K ( @
7.=5
D
F6.=5
+& sele!ting a "iameter to
-eep the loss %ithin the allo%a+le limits of 5.= m
an" 5.9 m, alrea"& "etermine".

electionof4iameters
electionof4iameters
(ine @ ((3s) #ipe
Diameter
(mm)
(
(m)
F B
f
G (m)
Balf
(ateral
5.55=9 74.=5 69 5.39 5.57
Balf
.anifol"
5.8595 37.=5 65.5 5.39 5.98
$u+>.ain,
0 to
$e!tion 7
7.9735 66.65 463 7 9.5E
.ain, 0 to
#ump
3.4495 55.85 95 7 4.E5

6ressure?eadat2anifold
6ressure?eadat2anifold
#nlet
#nlet

(i-e $prin-lers, the pressure hea" at inlet to the

manifol":

= 0verage <perating Bea" = 8.E m

C =5? of (ateral an" .anifol" hea" (oss = 5.=5

(5.57 C 5.98)

C ,iser Beight = Hero for Tri!-le sin!e no risers e2ist.

C 'levation "ifferen!e = Hero , sin!e the fiel" is (evel

= E.=E m

olution)oncluded
olution)oncluded

Total Bea" for #ump

= .anifol" #ressure = E.=E m

C #ressure loss at $u+>main = 9.5E m

C #ressure loss at .ain = 4.E5 m

C $u!tion (ift = 45 m

C Aet #ositive $u!tion hea" for pump = 6 m (assume")

= 63.48 m

i.e. The #ump must "eliver 3.43 (3s at a hea" of a+out

63 m.

3.@ S':%S'R(ACE
3.@ S':%S'R(ACE
IRRIGATION
IRRIGATION

A!!#ie$ in places where natural soil and

topographic condition fa"our water application
to the soil under the surface, a practice called
sub<surface irrigation. !hese conditions
include1

a%#mper"iouslayerat+5cmdepthormore

b%6er"ioussoilunderlyingtherestrictinglayer.

c%9niformtopographiccondition

d%2oderateslopes.

S':%S'R(ACE IRRIGATION
S':%S'R(ACE IRRIGATION
Cont$.
Cont$.

!he operation of the system in"ol"es a huge

reser"oir of water and le"el is controlled by
inflowandoutflow.

!he inflow is water application and rainfall

while the outflow is e"apotranspiration and
deeppercolation.

#t does not disturb normal farm operations.

:(cesswatercanberemo"edbypumping.

3.< CHOICE O(
3.< CHOICE O(
IRRIGATION METHODS:
IRRIGATION METHODS:

!hefollowingcriteriashouldbeconsidered1

$a%Watersupplya"ailable

$b%!opographyofareatobeirrigated

c%)limateofthearea

$d%oilsofthearea

$e%)ropstobegrown

f%:conomics

$g%.ocaltraditionsands'ills

$For details see e(tract from ?udson-s Field

:ngineering%.

3.6 IN(ORMATION TO :E CO88ECTED
3.6 IN(ORMATION TO :E CO88ECTED
ON A /ISIT TO A PROPOSED
ON A /ISIT TO A PROPOSED
IRRIGATION SITE.
IRRIGATION SITE.

a) Soi# Pro!ertie*: !e(ture and structure,

moisture e>uilibrium points, water holding capacity,
agricultural potential, land classification, 'inds of
cropsthatthesoilcansupport.

) 2ater Source: Water source a"ailability eg.

surface water, boreholes etc., hydrologic data of the
area, water >uantity, water >uality, eg. sodium
adsorption ratio, salt content, boron etc.7 possible
engineeringwor'snecessarytoobtainwater.

c) 2eat,er $ata: !emperature, relati"e humidity,

sunshinehoursandrainfall.

IN(ORMATION TO :E CO88ECTED
IN(ORMATION TO :E CO88ECTED

$) To!ogra!,0 e.g.slope1!hishelpstodetermine
the layout of the irrigation system and method of
irrigationwaterapplicationsuitedforthearea.

e) Hi*tor0 of Peo!#e an$ Irrigation in t,e area:

)hec' past e(posure of people to irrigation and
land tenure and le"el of possible re<settlement or
otherwise.

f) Infor+ation aout cro!* gro)n in t,e area:

)hec' preference by people, mar'et potential,
adaptability to area, water demand, growth
schedulesandplantingperiods.