1

Calculating Polynomials
We will use a generic polynomial form
of:

where the coefficient values are known
constants
The value of x will be the input and the
result is the value of the polynomial
using this x value
0 1
1
1
) ( p a x a x a x a x
n
n
n
n
+ + + + =

2
Standard Evaluation Algorithm
result = a[0] + a[1]*x
xPower = x
for i = 2 to n do
xPower = xPower * x
result = result + a[i]*xPower
end for
return result
3
Analysis
Before the loop, there is
One multiplication
One addition
The for loop is done N-1 times
There are two multiplications in the loop
There is one addition in the loop
There are a total of
2N 1 multiplications
N additions
4
Horners Method
Based on the factorization of a polynomial
The generic equation is factored as:


For example, the equation:


would be factored as:
( ) | | { } ( )
0 1 2 2 1
* * * * ) ( p a x a x a x a x a x a x
n n n
+ + + + + + =


4 7 5 ) ( p
2 3
+ = x x x x
( ) | | 4 * 7 * 5 ) ( p + = x x x x
5
Horners Method Algorithm
result = a[n]
for i = n - 1 down to 0 do
result = result * x
result = result + a[i]
end for
return result
6
Analysis
The for loop is done N times
There is one multiplication in the loop
There is one addition in the loop
There are a total of
N multiplications
N additions
Saves N 1 multiplications over the
standard algorithm
7
Preprocessed Coefficients
Uses a factorization of a polynomial
based on polynomials of about half the
original polynomials degree
For example, where the standard
algorithm would do 255 multiplications
to calculate x
256
, we could square x and
then square the result seven more times
to get the same result
8
Preprocessed Coefficients
Used with polynomials that are monic
(a
n
=1) and have a highest power that is
one less than a power of 2
If the polynomial has highest power that
is 2
k

1, we can factor it as:


where j = 2
k
-1
) ( ) ( q * ) ( p x r x b x x
j
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
9
Preprocessed Coefficients
If we choose b so that it is a
j-1
1, q(x)
and r(x) will both be monic, and so the
process can be recursively applied to
them as well
10
Preprocessed Coefficients Example
For the example equation of:

because the highest degree is 3 = 2
2
1,
j would be 2
1
= 2, and b would have a
value of a
1
1 = 6
This makes one factor x
2
+ 6, and we
divide p(x) by this polynomial to find q(x)
and r(x)
4 7 5 ) ( p
2 3
+ = x x x x
11
Preprocessed Coefficients Example
The division is:




which gives
5
26
30 6 5
4 7 5 6
2 3
2 3 2

+
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ +
x
x
x x x
x x x x
( ) ( ) 26 5 * 6 ) ( p
2
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+ = x x x x
12
Analysis
We analyze preprocessed coefficients
by developing recurrence relations for
the number of multiplications and
additions
In the factorization, we break the
polynomial up into two smaller
polynomials and do one additional
multiplication and two additional
additions
13
Analysis
Because we required that N = 2
k

1, we
get:
M(1) = 0 A(1) = 0
M(k) = 2M(k1) + 1 A(k) = 2A(k1) + 2
Solving these equations gives about N/2
multiplications and (3N 1)/2 additions
We need to include the k 1 (or lg N)
multiplications needed to calculate the
series of values x
2
, x
4
, x
8
,
14
Polynomial Algorithm Comparison
For the example polynomial:
Standard algorithm:
5 multiplications and 3 additions
Horners method
3 multiplications and 3 additions
Preprocessed coefficients
2 multiplications and 4 additions
15
Polynomial Algorithm Comparison
In general, for a polynomial of degree N:
Standard algorithm:
2N 1 multiplications and N additions
Horners method
N multiplications and N additions
Preprocessed coefficients
N/2 + lg N multiplications and (3N 1)/2 additions
16
Linear Equations
A system of linear equations is a
set of N equations in N unknowns:
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ a
13
x
3
+ + a
1N
x
N
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ a
a3
x
3
+ + a
2N
x
N
= b
2


a
N
x
1
+ a
N2
x
2
+ a
N3
x
3
+ + a
NN
x
N
= b
N

17
Linear Equations
When these equations are used, the
coefficients (a values) are constants
and the results (b values) are typically
input values
We want to determine the x values that
satisfy these equations and produce the
indicated results
18
Linear Equation Example
An example set of linear equations with
three unknowns is:

2x
1
4x
2
+ 6x
3
= 14
6x
1
6x
2
+ 6x
3
= 24
4x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 2x
3
= 18
19
Solving Linear Equations
One method to determine a solution
would be to substitute one equation into
another
For example, we solve the first equation
for x
1
and then substitute this into the
rest of the equations
This substitution reduces the number of
unknowns and equations
20
Solving Linear Equations
If we repeat this, we get to one
unknown and one equation and can
then back up to get the values of the
rest
If there are many equations, this
process can be time consuming, prone
to error, and is not easily computerized
21
Gauss-Jordan Method
This method is based on the previous idea
We store the equation constants in a
matrix with N rows and N+1 columns
For the example, we would get:

2 -4 6 14
6 -6 6 24
4 2 2 18
22
Gauss-Jordan Method
We perform operations on the rows until
we eventually have the identity matrix in
the first N columns and then the
unknown values will be in the final
column:
1 0 0 x
1

0 1 0 x
2

0 0 1 x
3

23
Gauss-Jordan Method
On each pass, we pick a new row and
divide it by the first element that is not
zero
We then subtract multiples of this row
from all of the others to create all zeros
in a column except in this row
When we have done this N times, each
row will have one value of 1 and the last
column will have the unknown values
24
Example
Consider the example again:




We begin by dividing the first row by 2,
and then subtract 6 times it from the
second row and 4 times it from the third
row
2 -4 6 14
6 -6 6 24
4 2 2 18
25
Example




Now, we divide the second row by 6,
and then subtract -2 times it from the
first row and 10 times it from the third
row

1 -2 3 7
0 6 -12 -18
0 10 -10 -10
26
Example




Now, we divide the third row by 10, and
then subtract -1 times it from the first
row and -2 times it from the second row

1 0 -1 1
0 1 -2 -3
0 0 10 20
27
Example
This gives the result of:





And we have that x
1
= 3, x
2
= 1, and
x
3
= 2
1 0 0 3
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2