Politics in the Middle East;

Significant historical events

continued

11-11-14

Aims

To explore the political significance of major historical

events on the Middle East

Outcome of the session

Students will be able to identify significant historical events,

external as well as internal to the Middle East
Students will be able to explore the political importance of these
events on the development of the Middle east

Recap

What are the three earliest political events that we

identified last session?

The political significance of these

identified historical events
Activity 1:
Focusing on the earliest three events,
consider its impact on the Middle East

First World War 1914-1918

First World War began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918.
The war drew in all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing sides:
The Allies: the United Kingdom, France and the Russian Empire. The Central Powers:
Germany and Austria-Hungary.
In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the
Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai.
By the end of the war, four major imperial powers: German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and
Ottoman Empires, ceased to exist. The former two lost substantial territory, while the latter
two were dismantled.
During the Paris Peace Conference, The Big Four imposed their terms in a series of
treaties,5 in total. The conference opened on 18 January 1919
The Big Four: Representatives of the United State, Great Britain, France and Italy. They met
together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by
the others, more than 32 countries.
The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the formation of The League of
Nations, with the aim of preventing any repetition of such an appalling conflict.

1916: SykesPicot agreement

It was between French Georges-Picot and British Sir Mark Sykes

The meeting was kept secret and was never publicly acknowledged
The Russian government was a minor party to the SykesPicot
agreement
The aim was to partition the Middle East between the two powers
The League of Nation assigned a mandatory role for Britain and
France over territories that were controlled by the Ottoman Empire,
large part of the Middle East
What is meant by mandatory role?

Mandate

The territories formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire that were deemed to
have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent
nations can be provisionally recognized.
This will be provided with administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory
until such time as they are able to stand alone.
However, the wishes of the communities must be a principal consideration in the
selection of the Mandatory.
Syria and Lebanon: (France) from 29 September 1923 1 January 1944.
Following the termination of the French mandate, two separate independent
republics, Syria and Lebanon were formed.
Mesopotamia: (Britain). The mandate was not enacted and was replaced by the
Anglo-Iraqi Treaty
Palestine: (Britain). It was a special mandate which ended on 1948 on the eve of
the occupation war.

Palestine mandate

Paris Conference reaffirmed the acceptance by the Allied Powers and the US of the
Belfour declaration
The primary purpose of the Palestine Mandate was to promote the establishment of
the Jewish National Home
The Zionist Organisation submitted their draft resolutions for consideration by the
Peace Conference on 3 February 1919.
The Conference statement included:
Recognition of the Jewish people's historic title to Palestine and their right to
reconstitute their National Home there.
The Government of Palestine entrusted to Great Britain as Mandatory of the League.
The Mandatory was to also supervise the control of the Holy Places.
However, Article 7 of the resulting mandate was confined to merely giving the right of
obtaining Palestinian citizenship by Jews who take up their permanent residence in
Palestine.

November 1917: Belfour

declaration/Promise
What

did the declaration contain?

The declaration stated that:

His

Majesty's government view with favour

the establishment in Palestine of a national
home for the Jewish people.

The Declaration continued:

His Majesty's government will use their best

endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this
object.
It is clearly understood that nothing shall be done
which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of
existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the
rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any
other country.

What can you read into this

Declaration?
- Supporting and accepting the plan prepared and propagated by
Jewish campaigners before the end of the 19th century.
It focused mainly on the protection of the interests of the Jewish
people in Palestine and elsewhere in the Middle East.
It made no specific reference to the Arabs or Muslims, though
they were the largest community
Some Arabs see the declaration as a promise from those who do
not own to those who do not deserve

The break-up of the Ottoman

Empire

Before the war the Empire was suffering from growing decline and
discontent, described as the sick man of Europe.
In 1914,Enver Pashas alliance with Germany led the Ottoman Empire
into a fatal step.
The British saw the Ottomans as the weak link in the enemy alliance,
and concentrated on knocking them out of the war.
When a direct assault failed at Gallipoli in 1915, they turned to
fomenting revolution in the Ottoman domains.
They exploited the awakening force of Arab, Armenian and Assyrian
nationalism against the Ottomans.
The Arabs had lived more or less happily under Ottoman rule for 400
years.

Break up continued 1

15

The British found an ally in Sharif Hussein, the ruler

of Mecca.
He led an Arab revolt against Ottoman rule, having
received a promise from Britain of Arab
independence in exchange.
The Empire suffered huge losses, particularly in
terms of casualties, which hasten its defeat.
Many of the war battles were fought on the lands of
the Empire.

Break up continued 2

The Ottomans defeat led to many of its Arab territories to revolt

against the Sultan/Caliphate.
Victorious Britain took over some of the Empires territories, such as
Egypt
The fall of the Ottomans and the partitioning of Anatolia by the Allies
led to resistance by the Turkish population.
Under the Turkish National Movement led by Ataturk, the Turkish
gained victory against the invading powers during the Turkish War of
Independence.
The founding of the modern Republic of Turkey was achieved in 1923.

Break up continued 3

Atatrk embarked on a program of modernisation

and secularisation.
He abolished the caliphate and Islamic courts,
emancipated women, enforced western dress and
the use of a new Turkish alphabet based on Latin
alphabet, instead of Arabic.
In effect, Turkey was determined to secede from the
Middle East and to become culturally part of Europe.

Activity 2:
Can

you please identify the political

significance of further three events

Discovery of oil

The Middle East has been of great importance to Foreign Powers, namely the
West for a number of reasons:
Its strategic geographic location as connecting the four main continents of the
world.
It has controlled the traditional trade land route between the East and the West
It was the cradle of the three main monotheist religions of the world.
It was the land of many historical human civilisations
Above all, it posses oil and other natural resources.
When oil was discovered in the Middle East, this represented another important
turning point of the region.
First in Persia in 1908 and later in Saudi Arabia in 1938, the other Persian Gulf
states, Libya and Algeria.

Discovery of oil continued 1

The Middle East possesses the world's largest easily accessible reserves of
crude oil.
Oil has been the most important commodity in the 20th century industrial world.
Western oil companies pumped and exported nearly all of the oil to fuel the
rapidly expanding automobile industry and other western industrial
developments.
kings and Emirs of the oil states became immensely rich, enabling them to
consolidate their hold on power and giving them a stake in preserving western
hegemony over the region.
Western dependence on Middle Eastern oil and the decline of British influence
led to a growing American interest in the region.
Initially, Western oil companies established a predominance over oil production
and extraction.

Discovery of oil continued 2

However, indigenous movements towards nationalising oil

assets, oil sharing and the advent of OPEC, ensured a shift in
the balance of power towards the Arab oil producing nations.
Oil wealth also had the effect of suppressing whatever
movement towards economic, political or social reform, which
could have emerged in the Arab world, under the influence of
the Kemalist revolution in Turkey.
Access to oil supplies was even more vital to the combatants
during World War II than in World War I. By 1939 the
mechanization of armies and the increasing use of airpower
generated an unprecedented demand for petroleum fuels.

World War 2

Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945.
It involved the vast majority of the worlds nations, forming two opposing camps: the Allies
and the Axis.
It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million
people from over 30 countries.
It resulted in an estimated 50 to 85 million fatalities.
World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world.
The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent
future conflicts.
The victorious great powers, the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United
Kingdom, and France, became the permanent members of the United nations Security
Council.
The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage
for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years.

World war 2 and the Middle East

The influence of European great powers started to wane, while the decolonisation of Asia
and Africa began.
Arab nationalism fostered after the first World War has also paved the way for liberation
Many countries in the Middle East gained their independence, though have not completely
shaken outside foreign influence.
Some obtained liberation without major struggle, like Egypt and Syria, while others, like
Algeria and Libya, had to fight for their independence
As World War II ended, the United States became the great outside power in the Middle
East, with three main concerns:
Persian Gulf oil; support and protection of the new nation of Israel; and containment of the
Soviet Union.
The goals proved difficult to manage, especially through the rise of Arab nationalism, two
major Arab-Israeli wars and an Arab oil embargo.

World War 2 and the Middle East

continued

Oil has always been the U.S.'s first priority in the Middle East.
President Franklin Roosevelt discussed oil when he met with the Saudi
king, Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, just before the close of World War II.
Another cornerstone of U.S. policy in the region has been
Washington's support for Israel.
The United States was among the first nations to recognize Israel in
1948, even as the United Nations voted to partition Palestine into
Jewish and Arab states.
Washington's intervention in Iran
A U.S. and British-backed coup ousted Prime Minister Mohammad
Mossadegh in 1953, added to mistrust of the United States in the Arab
world.

United Nations

Declared aim: was to foster international co-operation and to prevent future conflicts.
Critics see it as: A form or a means in the hands of the great powers to shape as well as
influence world order.
Has it succeeded?
It has made great success, through many of specialised agencies, in cooperation with the Red
Cross, particularly in helping or catering for refugees of wars and conflicts around the world,
relief operation, including the Middle East
It has not succeeded in preventing many conflicts, particularly in the Middle East, such as Israel
and the Arabs, Iran Iraq war, the Western Sahara conflict between the Polisario and Morocco.
America and its allies invaded Iraq without the full approval of the UN
This was under the pretext that Iraq has not implemented UN resolution regarding weapon of
mass destruction.
Israel has no implemented and of the UN resolutions, particularly 424
America is the biggest contributor to its budget and use this to influence decisions, UNESCO is
a case in point

Arab League

Declared aim: to foster cooperation, unity and prevent conflict.

It was seen as a regional UN and as representative of and providing a voice for the Arabs
Has it succeeded?
Its hey days were during the Arab nationalism wave experienced during the fifties and early
sixties, where Egypt played a dominant role.
Some see the League as merely a talking shop, as decisions are truly made elsewhere, namely
in the West.
It is seen as a place where Arabs s internal conflicts is allowed to surface rather than creating
Arab unity.
Decisions are adopted if they are unanimously approved, all have to agree to.
If has failed to prevent many conflicts, notably conflict between Iraq and Kuwait.
It has failed to solve the Lebanese factional conflict.
It has failed to prevent the invasion of Iraq.
It is often unable of carrying out its other social and humanitarian role, as a result of finance
issues. Many countries are either unable or unwilling to pay their contribution

Arrival of Nasser into power 1952

The Suez Crisis 1956

Six-day War 1976

October War 1973

Sadats visit to Israel 1977

Peace treaty between Egypt and

Israel 1979

Iran Iraq War 1982

Occupation of Kuwait 1991

Oslo Agreement 1993

Terrorist Attack on America 2001

Invasion of Iraq 2003

The emergence of the term new

Middle East 2006

Arab Spring 20011

In 1896, Theodor Herzl, a Jewish journalist living in Austria-Hungary,

published Der Judenstaat ("The Jews' State" or "The State of the Jews"),
in which he asserted that the only solution to the "Jewish Question" in
Europe, including growing anti-Semitism, was through the establishment
of a state for the Jews. Political Zionism had just been born. [4] A year later,
Herzl founded the Zionist Organization (ZO), which at its first congress,
"called for the establishment of a home for the Jewish people in Palestine
secured under public law". Serviceable means to attain that goal included
the promotion of Jewish settlement there, the organisation of Jews in the
diaspora, the strengthening of Jewish feeling and consciousness, and
preparatory steps to attain those necessary governmental grants. [5] Herzl
passed away in 1904 without the political standing that was required to
carry out his agenda of a Jewish home in Palestine.