FLOW MEASUREMENT

Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes

In laminar flow , the fluid travels as parallel layers (known as
streamlines) that do not mix as they move in the direction of
the flow.
If the flow is turbulent, the fluid does not travel in parallel
layers, but moves in a haphazard manner with only the
average motion of the fluid being parallel to the axis of the
pipe.
If the flow is transitional , then both types may be present at
different points along the pipeline or the flow may switch
between the two.
In 1883, Osborne Reynolds performed a classic set of
experiments that showed that the flow characteristic can be
predicted using a dimensionless number, now known as the
Reynolds number.

Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes

Differential Pressure Flowmeters

The Orifice Plate
The orifice plate is the simplest and cheapest. It
is simply a plate with a hole of specified size and
position cut in it, which can then clamped
between flanges in a pipeline
The increase that occurs in the velocity of a fluid
as it passes through the hole in the plate results
in a pressure drop being developed across the
plate.
After passing through this restriction, the fluid
flow jet continues to contract until a minimum
diameter known as the vena contracta is
reached.

The Orifice Plate

The Orifice Plate

The equation to calculate the flow must be modified to

The Venturi Tube

The classical or Herschel Venturi tube is the oldest type of differential

pressure flowmeter (1887).
The restriction is introduced into the flow in a more gradual way
The resulting flow through a Venturi tube is closer to that predicted in
theory so the discharge coefficient C is much nearer unity (0.95).
The pressure loss caused by the Venturi tube is lower, but the
differential pressure is also lower than for an orifice plate of the same
diameter ratio.

The Venturi Tube

The smooth design of the Venturi tube means that it is
less sensitive to erosion than the orifice plate, and thus
more suitable for use with dirty gases or liquids.
The Venturi tube is also less sensitive to upstream
disturbances, and therefore needs shorter lengths of
straight pipework upstream of the meter than the
equivalent orifice plate or nozzle.
Like the orifice plate and nozzle, the design, installation,
and use of the Venturi tube is covered by a number of
international standards.
The disadvantages of the Venturi tube flowmeter are its
size and cost.

The Nozzle

The nozzle combines some of

the best features of the orifice
plate and Venturi tube.
It is compact and yet, because
of its curved inlet, has a
discharge coefficient close to
unity.
There are a number of designs
of nozzle, but one of the most
commonly used in Europe is the
ISA-1932 nozzle, while in the
U.S., the ASME long radius
nozzle is more popular. Both of
these nozzles are covered by
international standards.

Variable Area Flowmeters

The term variable area flowmeters refers to
those meters in which the minimum crosssectional area available to the flow through the
meter varies with the flow rate.
Meters of this type include the rotameter and the
movable vane meter used in pipe flows, and the
weir or flume used in open-channel flows.
The measure of the flow rate is a geometrical
quantity such as the height of a bob in the
rotameter, the angle of the vane, or the change
in height of the free surface of the liquid flowing
over the weir or through the flume.

Rotameter
Rotameter consists of a conical
transparent vertical glass tube
containing a bob.
The flow rate is proportional to the
height of the bob.
The rotameter is characterized by:
Simple and robust construction
High reliability
Low pressure drop

Rotameter

Applicable to a wide variety of gases and liquids

Flow range 0.04 L/h to 150 m3/h for water
Flow range 0.5 L/h to 3000 m3/h for air
Uncertainty 0.4% to 4% of maximum flow
Insensitivity to nonuniformity in the inflow (no
upstream straight piping needed)
Typical maximum temperature 400C
Typical maximum pressure 4 MPa (40 bar)
Low investment cost
Low installation cost

Rotameters
For pipe flows, variable area flowmeters are suitable for
low flow rates of gases or liquids at moderate
temperatures and pressures.
Advantage rugged construction, high reliability, low
pressure drop, easy installation, and low cost.
Disadvantages measurement uncertainty of 1% or more,
limited range (10:1), slow response, and restrictions on
the meter orientation.
Variable area flowmeters in open-channel flows have
applications for flow measurements in waste water
plants, waterworks, rivers and streams, irrigation, and
drainage canals.

Pitot tube
A right angled glass tube, large enough for capillary effects to
be negligible, is used for the purpose. One end of the tube
faces the flow while the other end is open to the atmosphere.

 The liquid flows up the tube and when equilibrium is attained, the liquid reaches a
height above the free surface of the water stream.
Since the static pressure, under this situation, is equal to the hydrostatic pressure
due to its depth below the free surface, the difference in level between the liquid
in the glass tube and the free surface becomes the measure of dynamic pressure.
Therefore, we can write, neglecting friction,

where p0, p and V are the stagnation pressure, static pressure and velocity
respectively at point A (Fig. 16.3a).

Such a tube is known as a Pitot tube and provides one of the most accurate
means of measuring the fluid velocity.

For an open stream of liquid with a free surface, this single tube is suffcient
to determine the velocity. But for a fluid flowing through a closed duct, the
Pitot tube measures only the stagnation pressure and so the static pressure
must be measured separately.

Measurement of static pressure in this case is made at the boundary of the

wall (Fig. 16.3b). The axis of the tube measuring the static pressure must
be perpendicular to the boundary and free from burrs, so that the boundary
is smooth and hence the streamlines adjacent to it are not curved. This is
done to sense the static pressure only without any part of the dynamic
pressure.

A Pitot tube is also inserted as shown (Fig. 16.3b) to sense the stagnation
pressure. The ends of the Pitot tube, measuring the stagnation pressure, and
the piezometric tube, measuring the static pressure, may be connected to a
suitable differential manometer for the determination of flow velocity and
hence the flow rate.