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Modulation Techniques
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Digital signaling
Analog Signaling
Digital or analog data modulates analog carrier signal
The frequency of the carrier fc is chosen to be compatible
with the transmission medium used
Modulation: the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the modulating data
signal
by using different carrier frequencies, multiple data signals
(users) can share the same transmission medium
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Digital Signaling
Digital data, digital signal
Simplest encoding scheme: assign one voltage level to
binary one and another voltage level to binary zero
More complex encoding schemes: are used to improve
performance (reduce transmission bandwidth and minimize
errors).
Examples are NRZ-L, NRZI, Manchester, etc.
Analog Signaling
Digital data, Analog Signal
A modem converts digital data to an analog signal so that it
can be transmitted over an analog line
The digital data modulates the amplitude, frequency, or
phase of a carrier analog signal
Examples: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift
Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
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Periodic signals
Data element: a single binary 1 or 0
Signal element: a voltage pulse of constant amplitude
Unipolar: All signal elements have the same sign
Polar: One logic state represented by positive voltage the other
by negative voltage
Data rate: Rate of data (R) transmission in bits per second
Duration or length of a bit: Time taken for transmitter to emit
the bit (Tb=1/R)
Interpreting Signals
Need to know
timing of bits: when they start and end
signal levels: high or low
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Clocking
synchronizing transmitter and receiver with a sync
mechanism based on suitable encoding
error detection
useful if can be built in to signal encoding
Encoding Schemes
Positive level (+5V)
Negative level (-5V)
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Encoding Schemes
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Disadvantages
dc component
lack of synchronization
capability
Multilevel Binary
Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)
Use more than two levels (three levels,
positive, negative and no line signal)
Bipolar-AMI
zero represented by no line signal
one represented by positive or negative pulse
one pulses alternate in polarity
no loss of sync if a long string of ones
long runs of zeros still a problem
no net dc component
lower bandwidth
easy error detection
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Multilevel Binary
Pseudoternary
Binary one represented by absence of line
signal
Binary zero represented by alternating
positive and negative pulses
No advantage or disadvantage over
bipolar-AMI
Each used in some applications
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Disadvantages
receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0
a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same probability
of bit error
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Manchester Encoding
has transition in middle of each bit period
low to high represents binary one
transition serves as clock and data
high to low represents binary zero
used by IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) LAN standard
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Advantages
synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking codes)
has no dc component
has error detection capability (the absence of an expected
transition can be used to detect errors)
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Scrambling
Use scrambling to replace sequences that would
produce constant voltage
These filling sequences must
produce enough transitions to maintain synchronization
be recognized by receiver & replaced with original
be same length as original
Design goals
have no dc component
have no long sequences of zero level line signal
have no reduction in data rate
give error detection capability
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A cos(2f c t )
Modulation techniques
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
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Modulation Techniques
Susceptible to noise
Inefficient modulation technique
used for
up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
very high speeds over optical fiber
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f2
f2
f1
f1
f2
f1
f2
f2
f2
f1
f2
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f1
f2
f3
f4
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1 i M
where
f i f c ( 2i 1 M ) f d
f c the carrier frequency
f d the difference frequency
M number of different signal elements 2 L
L number of bits per signal element
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si (t ) A cos(2f i t ),
1 i M
where
f i f c (2i 1 M ) f d
M number of different signal elements 2 L
L number of bits per signal element
Tb : bit period
Example
With fc=250KHz, fd=25KHz, and M=8 (L=3 bits), we have the
following frequency assignment for each of the 8 possible 3-bit
f i f c ( 2i 1 M ) f d
data combinations:
000
f1 75 KHz
f 2 125 KHz
001
010
011
f 4 225 KHz
100
101
f 5 275 KHz
f 6 325 KHz
110
f 7 375 KHz
111
f 3 175 KHz
f 8 425 KHz
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Example
The following figure shows an example of MFSK with M=4. An
input bit stream of 20 bits is encoded 2bits at a time, with each
of the possible 2-bit combinations transmitted as a different
frequency.
f i f c ( 2i 1 M ) f d
00
i 1
f1 f c 3 f d
01
i2
f2 fc fd
10
i3
f3 fc f d
11
i4
f4 fc 3 fd
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A cos( 2f c t ), binary 0
binary 1
A cos( 2f c t ),
A cos(2f c t ), binary 0
Ad (t ) cos( 2f c t ),
d (t ) 1
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A cos( 2f c t 4 )
3
A cos(2f c t
)
4
s (t )
3
A cos( 2f c t
)
4
A cos( 2f c t 4 )
11
01
00
10
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QPSK :
OQPSK :
1
1
I (t ) cos( 2f c t )
Q (t ) sin( 2f c t )
2
2
1
1
s (t )
I (t ) cos( 2f c t )
Q (t Tb ) sin( 2f c t )
2
2
s (t )
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3
4
3
0 0 1 1
4
1 0 1 1
4
0 1 1 1
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data rate
R
1
,
transmission bandwidth BT 1 r
R log 2 M
,
BT
1 r
0 r 1
R
log 2 M
MFSK:
BT (1 r ) M
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QAM modulator
QAM :
s (t ) d1 (t ) cos( 2f c t ) d 2 (t ) sin( 2f c t )
ASK
ASK
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QAM Variants
Two level ASK (two different amplitude levels)
each of two streams in one of two states
four state system
essentially QPSK