Module 3

Radio Propagation in Mobile

System
Presented By
Megha Das K

Summary
Antenna basics
Cellular & PCS Antennas
MIMO
Mobile Radio Propagation
1. Free space Propagation Model
2. Two Ray Model
3. Outdoor Indoor Propagation Model
. Fading Channels
. Raleigh & Ricean Distribution

Antenna basics
An antenna is a device used to transform an RF signal, traveling on
a conductor, into an electromagnetic wave in free space.
The antenna is the interface between the transmission line and
space
Antennas are passive devices; the power radiated cannot be greater
than the power entering from the transmitter

Antenna basics
When speaking of gain in an antenna, gain refers to the idea that
certain directions are radiated better than others
Antennas are reciprocal - the same design works for receiving
systems as for transmitting systems
Simple Antennas : The Isotropic Radiator would radiate all the
power delivered to it and equally in all directions.The isotropic
radiator would also be a point source

Antenna basics
Major Difference Between Antennas And Transmission Lines
transmission line uses conductor to carry voltage & current
radio signal travels through air (insulator)
antennas are transducers
- convert voltage & current into electric & magnetic field
- bridges transmission line & air
- similar to speaker/microphone with acoustic energy

Antenna basics
Types of antennas
simple antennas: dipole, long wire
complex antennas: additional components to
shape radiated field
provide high gain for long distances or weak signal reception
size frequency of operation
combinations of identical antennas
phased arrays electrically shape and steer antenna
Transmit antenna: radiate maximum energy into surroundings
Receive antenna: capture maximum energy from surrounding
radiating transmission line is technically an antenna
good transmission line = poor antenna

Antenna basics
Antenna Performance depends heavily on
Channel Characteristics: obstacles, distances temperature,
Signal Frequency
Antenna Dimensions
Transmit & Receive antennas
theoretically are the same (e.g. radiation fields, antenna gain)
practical implementation issue:
transmit antenna handles high power signal (W-MW)
- large conductors & high power connectors,
receive antenna handles low power signal (mW-uW)

Antenna basics
Propagation Modes five types
(1) Ground or Surface wave: follow earths contour
affected by natural and man-made terrain
salt water forms low loss path
several hundred mile range
2-3 MHz signal

Antenna basics
(2) Space Wave
Line of Sight (LOS) wave
Ground Diffraction allows for greater distance
Approximate Maximum Distance, D in miles is
D = 2htx 2hrx
(antenna height in ft)
No Strict Signal Frequency Limitations
htx

hrx

Antenna basics
(3) Sky Waves
reflected off ionosphere (20-250 miles high)
large ranges possible with single hop or multi-hop
transmit angle affects distance, coverage, refracted energy
refracted
wave
ionosphere
reflected
transmitted
wave
wave
skip distance

Antenna basics
(4) Satellite Waves
Designed to pass through ionosphere into space
uplink (ground to space)
down link (space to ground)
Frequencies >> critical frequency
penetrates ionosphere without reflection
Geosynchronous orbit 23k miles (synchronized with earths
orbit)
long distances result in high path loss
EM energy disperses over distances
intensely focused beam improves efficiency

Antenna basics
(5) radar:
requires high gain antenna
sensitive low noise receiver
requires reflected signal from object distances are doubled
only small fraction of transmitted signal reflects back

Antenna basics
Antenna Types
Dipole Antennas (Hertz): simple, old, widely used
- root of many advance antennas
consists of 2 spread conductors of 2 wire transmission lines
each conductor is in length
total span = + small center gap

Transmission
Line

gap

Antenna basics
Multi-Band Dipole Antennas
use 1 antenna support several widely separated frequency bands
e.g. HAM Radio - 3.75MHz-29MHz

Traps: L,C elements inserted into dipole arms

arms appear to have different lengths at different frequencies
traps must be suitable for outdoor use
2ndry affects of trap impact effective dipole arm length-adjustable
2/4
2/4
not useful over 30MHz
L
L
C 1/4

1/4 C

Transmission
Line

Antenna basics
Elementary Antennas

low cost flexible solutions

Long Wire Antenna

effective wideband antenna
length l = several wavelengths
- used for signals with 0.1l < < 0.5l
- frequency span = 5:1
drawback for band limited systems - unavoidable interference

near end driven by ungrounded transmitter output

far end terminated by resistor
- typically several hundred & impedance matched to antenna Z0
transmitter electrical circuit ground connected to earth

Antenna basics
Folded Dipole Antenna
- basic dipole folded to form complete circuit
- core to many advanced antennas
- mechanically more rugged than dipole

/2

- 10% more bandwidth than dipole

- input impedance 292
- close match to std 300 twin lead wire transmission line
- use of different diameter upper & lower arms allows
variable impedance

Antenna basics
Loop & Patch Antenna wire bent into loops
Patch Antenna: rectangular conducting area with || ground plane
V = k(2f)BAN
V = maximum voltage induced in receiver by EM field
B = magnetic field strength flux of EM field
A = area of loop
N-turns
N = number of turns
f = signal frequency
k = physical proportionality factor

Antenna
Plane

Area A

Antenna basics

Antenna Types

Antenna basics
Name
Isotropic

Shape

Gain (over Beamwidth

isotropic)
-3 dB
0 dB

360

2.14 dB

55

Turnstile

-0.86 dB

50

Full Wave
Loop

3.14 dB

200

Yagi

7.14 dB

25

Helical

10.1 dB

30

Parabolic
Dipole

14.7 dB

20

Horn

15 dB

15

Biconical
Horn

14 dB

360x200

Dipole

Radiation Pattern

Cellular &
PCS Antennas
Analog cellular on the 850 MHz band
Since 1979 (experimental), 1981 commercial; analog FM now mostly phased
out
Digital Cellular/PCS on 850 and 1900 MHz bands
Since ~1991 with immense growth rate

Systems on the 1.9 GHz (1900 MHz) band

Usually called Personal Communications Systems
even when technologically identical to 850 MHz systems (such as IS-95 CDMA
or IS-136 TDMA)

900 MHz and 1.8 GHz bands used in Europe and other continents,
mainly for GSM (Global System for Mobile communication)

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Technically, a cellular system has 2 properties:
Cellular frequency re-use
Handover (also called handoff)

So do most personal communications systems (PCSs)

only exception is CT-2 public cordless (current implementations) without handover

Today the North American business distinction is sometimes

based on frequency band...
850/900 MHz is described as cellular
including digital cellular such as GSM, IS-54, IS-136
1.9 GHz is described as PCS

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Manual operator-handled mobile radio (1945)
Automatic Mobile Radio, e.g. Secode, IMTS (1960)
Trunked radio (1960)
cellular-like frequency re-use
but no handover!

Cellular radio (1978) required new technology:

control of mobile radio operation via messages from base
Mobile transmit (Tx) frequency and power
Can be changed during a conversation to select best base station or
compensate for distance
Handover continues conversation as mobile station moves from cell to
cell

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Cellular Frequency Re-use

Certain types of radio modulation exhibit the capture effect

When ratio of desired signal power to undesired (interference &
noise) power is greater than the capture ratio, only the stronger
desired signal is apparent in the output
Capture phenomenon works for
Certain types of modulation: FM, Phase Modulation -- but NOT AM

Bandwidth of signal is typically large compared to data rate for a

useful capture ratio:
Analog cellular 30 kHz: c.r. is 63/1 or 18 dB
Narrow band NAMPS 10 kHz: c.r. is 200/1 or 23 dB

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Cellular Frequency Plan

Frequency plan depends on

capture ratio resulting from RF technology
Radio signal strength, path loss or distance-related attenuation

Approximately: received power =1/distance4 in city

Empirical approximation, not based on theory

Exponent in range 2 (open space) to 4 (cluttered urban

environment)

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Cellular Frequency Plan

A frequency plan is characterized by a cell cluster count in

which each frequency is used in one cell
Low capture ratio, high path loss requires small cell cluster (3
or 4)
High capture ratio, low path loss requires large cluster (7 or 12
or more)

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Frequency Clusters

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Cell Splitting

Increase of capacity by 7 in center cell (for n=7 plan)

But there is a lower limit on cell size (due to approx. min. 5 mW
handset Tx power) so you cant split again and again without
limitation
Cell splitting is the most costly choice, used only after first using
methods which add capacity to an existing cell site

Cellular & PCS Antennas

General PCS System Structure

Official block diagram (from GSM) showing major defined interfaces.

Second VLR is optional

AuC

VLR

EIR

BSC BTS

BTS

F
D

HLR

VLR

BSC

BTS

C
OMC

A-bis

MSC
BSC BTS

to PSTN
E

to other MSCs

BSS

Um
MS

Cellular & PCS Antennas

VLR Data Base

Misleading name- Visited Location Register

Data needed to communicate with a MS

Equipment identity and authentication-related data

Last known Location Area (LA) [group of cells]
Power Class, other physical attributes of MS
List of special services available to this subscriber [e.g. circuit-switched FAX, etc.]

More data entered while engaged in a Call

Current cell
Encryption keys
etc.

Cellular & PCS Antennas

HLR Data Base

Home Location Register

Need not be part of the MSC
One HLR can be shared by several MSCs
Some operators plan a single regional HLR for shared use by several MSCs

Contains everything permanent about the customer

IMSI, IMEI, Directory Number, classes of service, etc.
Current city and LA
particularly when not in home system (when roaming)

Authentication related information

In some implementations HLR and VLR are the same physical

data base
VLR records distinguished logically via active in VLR bits

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Base Station Assembly

Antennas
Transmit Combiner Processing
Receive Multi-coupler/Low Noise Distribution Amplifier

Base Transceiver
Transmitter Section
Receiver Section
Antenna Diversity Processing in Receiver

Base Station Controller

Support equipment: power, air conditioning,

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Base Station Equipment

Not shown: band pass or band reject filters in antenna lines, power equipment, airconditioning, test transceiver, alarm equipment, etc.
first
Rx
ant.

Tx
ant.

BT0

BSC
BCF

BT1

...
BTS

A-bis

BTn

second
Rx
ant.

Tx
Combiner
Rx
multicoupler
Rx
multicoupler

BSS

Two standardized interfaces (A and Abis in GSM) permit competitive suppliers for base equipment

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Inside the Boxes

Transmit Combiner contains

Tunable resonant cavity filters
Directional couplers

Its purpose: feed most Tx power to Tx antenna, not to other

transmitters (where the signal power does no good and may
even cause overheating or damage)
Receive multi-coupler is RF low-noise pre-amplifier
similar to TV community antenna distribution system
distributes Rx signal to all receivers at same level they would get from
an unshared Rx antenna

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Why 2 Base Rx Antennas?
Dual antennas diversity improves base reception sensitivity by as
much as 2 to 5 dB vis--vis a single antenna
Spacing of antennas should be odd multiple of l/4, preferably
>8l apart
Several methods for diversity combining:
Switching/selection
Equal gain
Maximal ratio
vendor design choice, not standardized

Cellular & PCS Antennas

Why UHF Bands?

Because they are available is a legal/historical reason only,

although very significant...
VHF and below, absolutely no available bands!
Former point-point microwave and military bands were made available around 2 GHz
band
Still some incumbent microwave systems
Government auctioned bands to highest bidder in 1990s
Strong financial motive to move quickly

Technological reasons:
UHF follows line of sight propagation
Little/no over-horizon or skip radio propagation
MF, HF short-wave bands would be impractical for cellular

SHF bands require much more costly components, and some bands are used for
extensive installed microwave or have strong atmospheric attenuation

Cellular & PCS Antennas

North American 850 MHz Band Cellular

Spectrum
Setup-control carriers (21 each operator)
Paired Bands
Uplink-Reverse sub-band
A
9911023

824
MHz

B
334-666

1-333

825
MHz

835
MHz

SMR band
A B
667716

717799

845 846.5 849

MHz MHz MHz

Specialized
Mobile Radio
use

Downlink- Forward Sub-band

A
9911023

B
334-666

1-333

869 870
MHz MHz

880
MHz

A B
667716

890
MHz

717799

891.5 894
MHz MHz

Original 30 kHz carriers 1-666 assigned 1981

Additional carriers assigned 1987
No more carriers likely until after year 2000
Operator optional additional IS-136 setup carriers in middle of A and B subbands. Ordinarily used for voice
IS-136 allows any frequency to be used for TDMA setup carrier
IS-95 uses 10 chunks each 1.25 MHz bandwidth

Cellular & PCS Antennas

North American 1900 MHz Band PCS Spectrum

FCC PCS Spectrum Allocation - June 9, 1994
Paired Bands
Licensed Uplink

1850
MHz

i
i
i
i

MTA

B
T
A

MTA

1865
MHz

1870
MHz

Unlicensed
B
T
A

B
T
A

BTA

E F
1885
MHz

1890 1895
MHz MHz

Data

Licensed Downlink

Voice

C
1910
MHz

1920
MHz

1930
MHz

MTA

B
T
A

MTA

1945
MHz

1950
MHz

B
T
A

B
T
A

BTA

E F
1965 1970
MHz MHz

C
1975
MHz

1990
MHz

Blocks A & B are for use in Metropolitan Trading Areas (MTAs)

Blocks C, D, E & F for use in Basic Trading Areas (BTAs) [suburban or rural]
In any service area, 40 MHz block combinations are permitted
Cellular operators are eligible for only one 10 MHz block in their existing
services areas

MIMO
In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output,
or MIMO (pronounced as "my-moh" or "me-moh"), is a method for
multiplying the capacity of a radio link using multiple transmit and
receive antennas to exploit multipath propagation
MIMO has become an essential element of wireless communication
standards including Wi-Fi,3G&4G.
More recently, MIMO has been applied to power-line
communication for 3-wire installations as part of ITU G.hn standard
and HomePlug AV2 specification.

MIMO

Aspirations (Mathematical) of a System

Designer
High data rate
Quality

Real-life Issues

Achieve
Channel Capacity (C)

Minimize Probability of Error (Pe)

Minimize complexity/cost of
implementation of proposed
System
Minimize transmission power
required (translates into SNR)
Minimize Bandwidth (frequency
spectrum) Used

MIMO

Antenna Configurations
Single-Input-Single-Output (SISO) antenna system
User data stream
channel
User data stream

Theoretically, the 1Gbps barrier can be achieved using this configuration

if you are allowed to use much power and as much BW as you so please!

Extensive research has been done on SISO under power and BW

constraints. A combination a smart modulation, coding and multiplexing
techniques have yielded good results but far from the 1Gbps barrier

MIMO
MIMO Antenna Configuration
Use multiple transmit and multiple receive antennas for a
single user

User data stream

channel

User data stream

. .

. .
MT

. .
MR

Now this system promises enormous data rates!

MIMO
Data Units
Will use the following terms loosely and interchangeably,
Bits (lowest level): +1 and -1
Symbols (intermediate): A group of bits
Packets (highest level): Lots and lots of
symbols

MIMO
Shannons Capacity (C)

Given a unit of BW (Hz), the max error-free transmission rate is

C = log2(1+SNR) bits/s/Hz
Define
R: data rate (bits/symbol)
RS: symbol rate (symbols/second)
w: allotted BW (Hz)
Spectral Efficiency is defined as the number of bits transmitted per second per Hz
R x RS bits/s/Hz
W
As a result of filtering/signal reconstruction requirements, R S W. Hence Spectral
Efficiency = R if RS = W
If I transmit data at a rate of R C, I can achieve an arbitrarily low P e

MIMO
Spectral Efficiency
Spectral efficiencies of some widely used modulation schemes

Scheme

b/s/Hz

BPSK

QPSK

16-QAM

64-QAM

The Whole point: Given an acceptable Pe , realistic power and BW

limits, MIMO Systems using smart modulation schemes provide
much higher spectral efficiencies than traditional SISO

MIMO
MIMO System Model
s1
User data stream
.
.

s2
.
.
sM

s
Transmitted
vector

h1
1 h1
.2

y1
y2

.
Channel
Matrix H

User data stream

.
.

yM
y
Received
vector

MIMO
MIMO System Model
y = Hs + n

h11 h21

MT
.. hM1

h12 h22 .. hM2

Where H = MR
.
.
.. .
h1M h2M .. hMM
hij is a Complex Gaussian random variable
that models fading gain between the ith
transmit and jth receive antenna

MIMO
Capacity of MIMO Channels

y = Hs + n
Let the transmitted vector s be a random vector to be very general and n is normalized noise. Let the total
transmitted power available per symbol period be P. Then,
C = log 2 (IM + HQHH) b/s/Hz
where Q = E{ssH} and trace(Q) < P according to our power constraint

Consider specific case when we have users transmitting at equal power over the channel and the users are
uncorrelated (no feedback available). Then,
CEP = log 2 [IM + (P/MT)HHH] b/s/Hz
Telatar showed that this is the optimal choice for blind transmission

Foschini and Telatar both demonstrated that as MT and MR grow,

CEP = min (MT,MR) log 2 (P/MT) + constant b/s/Hz
Note: When feedback is available, the Waterfilling solution is yields maximum capacity but converges to
equal power capacity at high SNRs

MIMO
The capacity expression presented was over one realization of the
channel.
Capacity is a random variable and has to be averaged over infinite
realizations to obtain the true ergodic capacity. Outage capacity
is another metric that is used to capture this

MIMO

MIMO Design Criterion

MIMO Systems can provide two types of gain

Spatial Multiplexing
Gain

Diversity
Gain

Maximize transmission
rate(optimistic approach)

Minimize Pe (conservative
approach)

Use rich scattering/fading

to your advantage

Go for Reliability / QoS etc

Combat fading

MIMO

Practical System

So MIMO promises enormous rates theoretically! Can we exploit this practically?

1
2

R bits/symbol

Channel
coding

Symbol
mapping

SpaceTime
Coding

.
.
MT

Redundancy in time
Coding rate = rc

Space- time redundancy over T symbol

periods
Spatial multiplexing gain = rs

MIMO
rs : number of different symbols N transmitted in T
symbol periods
rs = N/T
Non

Spectral efficiency = (R*rc info bits/symbol)(rs)(Rs

symbols/sec)

w
= Rrcrs bits/s/Hz assuming Rs = w

rs is the parameter that we are concerned about: 0 rs

MT

** If rs =

MT, we are in spatial

multiplexing mode (max
transmission rate)

**If rs 1, we are in diversity

redundant
portion of
symbols

Mobile Radio
Propagation

Mobile Radio Propagation

Mobile radio propagation effects

Mobile Radio Propagation

Path loss models

Mobile Radio Propagation

Path loss causes

Mobile Radio Propagation

Path loss propagation models

Mobile Radio Propagation

Large scale & small scale fading

Mobile Radio Propagation

Large scale & small scale fading

1. Free space Propagation Model

1. Free space Propagation Model

1. Free space Propagation Model

Freespace loss

1. Free space Propagation Model

Propagation illustration

1. Free space Propagation Model

Propagation mechanism

1. Free space Propagation Model

3 basic propagations

1. Free space Propagation Model

1. Free space Propagation Model

Reflection

2. Two Ray Model or Ground

Reflection model

2. Two Ray Model

Diffraction

2. Two Ray Model

Knife-edge diffraction model

2. Two Ray Model

Diffraction Geometry

2. Two Ray Model

2. Two Ray Model

Scattering loss factor

3. Outdoor Indoor Propagation Model

3.1 Outdoor Propagation Model

3. Outdoor Indoor Propagation Model

Examples

3. Outdoor Indoor Propagation Model

3.2 Indoor Propagation Model

Fading Channels

Fading: rapid fluctuations of received signal strength over short

time intervals and/or travel distances
Caused by interference from multiple copies of Tx signal arriving
@ Rx at slightly different times
Three most important effects:
1. Rapid changes in signal strengths over small travel distances or
short time periods.
2. Changes in the frequency of signals.
3. Multiple signals arriving a different times. When added
together at the antenna, signals are spread out in time. This can
cause a smearing of the signal and interference between bits
that are received.

Fading Channels
Fading signals occur due to reflections from ground & surrounding
buildings (clutter) as well as scattered signals from trees, people,
towers, etc.
often an LOS path is not available so the first multipath signal
arrival is probably the desired signal (the one which traveled the
shortest distance)
allows service even when Rx is severely obstructed by
surrounding clutter

Fading Channels
Even stationary Tx/Rx wireless links can experience fading due to
the motion of objects (cars, people, trees, etc.) in surrounding
environment off of which come the reflections
Multipath signals have randomly distributed amplitudes, phases, &
direction of arrival
vector summation of (A ) @ Rx of multipath leads to
constructive/destructive interference as mobile Rx moves in
space with respect to time

Fading Channels
received signal strength can vary by Small-scale fading over
distances of a few meter (about 7 cm at 1 GHz)!
This is a variation between, say, 1 mW and 10-6 mW.
If a user stops at a deeply faded point, the signal quality can be
quite bad.
However, even if a user stops, others around may still be moving
and can change the fading characteristics.
And if we have another antenna, say only 7 to 10 cm separated
from the other antenna, that signal could be good.

Fading Channels
fading occurs around received signal strength predicted from
large-scale path loss models

80

Fading Channels
II. Physical Factors Influencing Fading in Mobile Radio Channel
(MRC)

1) Multipath Propagation
strength of multipath signals
time delay of signal arrival
large path length differences large differences in delay between signals

urban area w/ many buildings distributed over large spatial

scale
large ,strong multipath signals with only a few having a large time delay
Moderate strong multipath signals with small to moderate delay times

81

Fading Channels
2) Speed of Mobile
relative motion between base station & mobile causes random
frequency modulation due to Doppler shift (fd)
Different multipath components may have different frequency
shifts.
3) Speed of Surrounding Objects
also influence Doppler shifts on multipath signals
dominates small-scale fading if speed of objects > mobile
speed
otherwise ignored
82

Fading Channels
4) Tx signal bandwidth (Bs)
The mobile radio channel (MRC) is modeled as filter w/
specific bandwidth (BW)
The relationship between the signal BW & the MRC BW will
affect fading rates and distortion, and so will determine:
a) if small-scale fading is significant
b) if time distortion of signal leads to inter-symbol interference (ISI)

An MRC can cause distortion/ISI or small-scale fading, or

both.
But typically one or the other.

83

Fading Channels
Fading

Fast Fading
(Short-term fading)

Signal
Strength

Slow Fading
(Long-term fading)

(dB)

Path Loss
Distance

84

Fading Channels
Slow Fading
The long-term variation in the mean level is known as slow fading
(shadowing or log-normal fading). This fading caused by shadowing.
Log-normal distribution:
- The pdf of the received signal level is given in decibels by

p M

1
e
2

M M

2 2

where M is the true received signal level m in decibels, i.e., 10log10m,

M is the area average signal level, i.e., the mean of M,
is the standard deviation in decibels
85

Fading Channels
Log-normal Distribution

2
p(M)

The pdf of the received signal level

86

Fading Channels

Rayleigh Distribution

P(r)
1.0
0.8

=1
0.6

=2

0.4

=3

0.2

r
2

10

The pdf of the envelope variation

87

Fading Channels
Fast Fading
When MS far from BS, the envelope distribution of received
signal is Rician distribution. The pdf is

r
p r 2 e

r 2 2

2 2

r
I0
,

r0

where
is the standard deviation,
I0(x) is the zero-order Bessel function of the first kind,
is the amplitude of the direct signal

88

Fading Channels

Rician Distribution
= 0 (Rayleigh)
=1
=2
=3

0.6

Pdf p(r)

0.5
0.4

=1

0.3
0.2
0.1
00

4
r

The pdf of the envelope variation

8
89

Raleigh & Ricean

Distribution
Rayleigh probability distribution function

r
r2
P (r ) 2 exp 2

0r

Used for flat fading signals.

Formed from the sum of two Gaussian noise signals.
: RMS value of Rx signal before detection (demodulation)
common model for Rx signal variation
urban areas heavy clutter no LOS path
probability that signal does not exceeds predefined threshold level R

90

Raleigh & Ricean Distribution

91

Raleigh & Ricean Distribution

rmean : The mean value of Rayleigh distribution

rmean E[r ]

rp(r )dr
1.2533
2

r2 : The variance of Rayleigh distribution; ac power of signal

2
envelope 2 E[r 2 ] E 2 [r ] r 2 p (r )dr
r
0
2

2 2 0.4292 2
2

: RMS value of Rx signal before detection (demodulation)

92

Raleigh & Ricean Distribution

93

Raleigh & Ricean Distribution

Ricean Probability Distribution Function
one dominant signal component along with weaker
multipath signals
dominant signal LOS path
suburban or rural areas with light clutter

becomes a Rayleigh distribution as the dominant

component weakens
94

Raleigh & Ricean Distribution

95

Thank You