Nuclear Chemistry

Radioactivity
Nuclear Reactions
Rates of Radioactive Decay
Medical Applications of Isotopes
Biological Effects of Radiation
Nuclear Energy

15-1
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Radiation
Radiation
Energy that comes from a source and travels
through matter or space
Two types of radiation:
Electromagnetic
Includes light, gamma rays, and X-rays

Particulate
Mass given off from unstable atoms with the
energy of motion

Ionizing radiation
Radiation of either type that can produce charged
particles in matter
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Radioactivity
Radioactive decay
The spontaneous emission of
electromagnetic or other types of
radiation

Radioactive atoms
Unstable atoms that give off excess
matter, energy, or both as ionizing
radiation
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Nucleons
Nucleons
General term used to describe nuclear
particles, protons, and neutrons
Remember:
Sum of N and Z is = A (N+Z = A), the mass
number
Z signifies the atomic number, the number
of protons in the nucleus of an atom
N signifies the neutron number, the
number of neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom
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Nuclides
Remember, isotopes are:
Atoms with the same atomic number Z, but
different neutron numbers N and mass
numbers A

Nuclides
Isotopes that exist for a measurable length of
time and have a defined energy state
An atom of a particular atomic number, mass
number and neutron number
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Radiation
In a nuclear reaction, an emission of
radiation usually accompanies changes
in the composition of the nucleus.
Natural radiation associated with
radioactive decay can be placed into
three classes:
Alpha particles
Beta particles
Gamma rays
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Radiation
The three classes of natural radiation
behave differently in an electric field:
Figure 15.5

15- 7

Properties of Types of Radiation

Radiation
Notation Mass Charge
Type
, 42 He 2

Alpha

4
2

Beta
(electron)

0
1

Beta
(positron)

0
1

Gamma

Penetration
into Al

2+

0.01 mm

~0

1-

0.5-1.0 mm

~0

1+

(Reacts with
electrons)

50-110 mm
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Types of Radiation

Alpha particles
Nuclei of helium-4 atoms
Contain 2 protons and 2
neutrons
Least harmful to animal
and human tissue

Gamma rays
High energy
electromagnetic radiation:
energy without charge or
mass
Highest energy and most
penetrating type of
radiation
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Types of Radiation
Beta particles
Small, charged particle
that can be emitted from
unstable atoms at speeds
approaching the speed of
light
Penetrate through skin
into tissue
2 types of beta particles:
Positron
Same mass as an
electron with an
opposite charge
Electron
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Nuclear Reactions
Two conditions must be met to
balance a nuclear equation:
1. Conservation of mass number
2. Conservation of nuclear charge
(atomic number)

Examples:

Th

228
88

Th

231
91

232
90
231
90
238
92

Ra
4
2

Pa

U 24

0
-1

239
94

Pu 3 01n

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Alpha Particle Emission

When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, it loses
2 protons and 2 neutrons, so its atomic number
decreases by 2 and its mass number decreases
by 4.
232
228
4
90
88
2

Th

Ra

Figure 15.7

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Beta Particle (Electron) Emission

When a nucleus emits a beta particle (electron),
its atomic number increases by 1 and its mass
number remains unchanged.

Th

231
90

231
91

Pa
0
-1

Figure 15.8

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Beta Particle (Positron) Emission

When a nucleus emits a beta particle (positron),
its atomic number decreases by 1 and its mass
number remains unchanged.

23
12

Mg Na
23
11

0
1

Figure 15.9

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Gamma Ray Emission

In all nuclear reactions, the nucleus changes from a
state of higher energy to a state of lower energy.
Gamma rays are pure electromagnetic energy.
Results in no change in mass or atomic number.
99mTc
99Tc +

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Particle Accelerators
Particle accelerators are used for nuclear
bombardment reactions.
The synchrotron, perhaps the most
successful accelerator, uses a circular
path for the accelerating particles.
Figure 15.13

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Radioactive Decay Series

In heavier elements,
often the product of
radioactive decay is
itself radioactive.
In such cases, a
series of alpha and
beta decay steps
ultimately leads to a
stable nuclide.
Accounts for most of
the radioactive decay
among elements 83
through 92.

Figure 15.15

Half-Life
The time required for half of a sample of
a nuclide to decay to a different nuclide
It takes the same time for a fresh sample
to decay to one-half the original number
of atoms of that nuclide as it does onehalf to decay to one-fourth and so on.
The shorter the half-life of a nuclide, the
more intense the radiation that it emits.

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Half-Life

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Archeological Dating
Radio-carbon dating
Using carbon-14 to measure time on an
archeological scale.
As long as a plant or animal is alive, its
carbon-14 content should match that in the
atmosphere.
After it dies, its carbon-14 content
decreases through beta decay:
14
6

C N
14
7

0
-1

The half-life of the process is 5730 years.

Medical Applications
Many medical applications exists
that use radioactivity:
Power generators
Example: used to power pacemakers

Medical diagnoses
Radioactive nuclides are used as tracers
to track movements of substances in
chemical or biological systems

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Medical Applications
Positron Emission Topography
A PET scan detects abnormalities in living
tissues without disrupting the tissue.

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Medical Applications
Cancer therapy
Radioactive nuclides, in much higher
doses than those used for imaging, are
used to treat cancerous tumors.
Cancer cells absorb nutrients containing
gamma-emitting components, the gamma
radiation becomes concentrated in the
cancerous cells, destroying them in
greater numbers than normal cells.
Examples: 131I destroys thyroid tumors, 32P
used for eye tumors.
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Biological Effects of Radiation

Radiation can have one of four effects on

the functioning of a cell:
1. The radiation can pass through the cell with no
damage.
2. The cell can absorb the radiation and be
damaged, but it can subsequently repair the
damage and resume normal functioning.
3. The cell can be damaged so severely that it
cannot repair itself. New cells formed from this
cell will be abnormal. This mutant cell can
ultimately cause cancer if it continues to
proliferate.
4. The cell can be so severely damaged that it dies.
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Biological Effects of Radiation

Radon
A rare noble gas which has also
been implicated as a possible cause
of lung cancer.
Accumulates in houses from
particular kinds of soils or rock
strata.

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Nuclear Energy
Fission
Splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more
lighter nuclei and some number of neutrons
Example:

235
92

235
92

U n Kr

141
56

235
92

U n Sr

143
54

1
0

92
36

1
0

U n
1
0

90
38

94
40

Zr

140
58

Ba 3 n
1
0

Xe 3 n
1
0

Ce 2 n 6
1
0

0
-1

Fission of Uranium-235
Figure 15.22

Chain Reactions

A reaction in which the product of one step is

the reactant in another step.
In order for a chain reaction to sustain itself,
the amount and shape of the sample of
fissionable material must be such that the
neutrons will not escape due to energy that is
higher than optimum for inducing further
fission.
A chain reaction should maintain a constant
rate.
Critical mass
The smallest amount of fissionable material
necessary to support a continuing chain reaction.
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Plutonium
When nonfissionable U-238 captures a fast
neutron, it eventually forms the fissionable
nuclide of plutonium, Pu-239, which can support
a chain reaction. Plutonium is a transuranium
element, meaning that it has an atomic number
greater than the 92 of uranium. The fissionable
plutonium produced in a uranium-fueled reactor
can be used as a fuel or in nuclear weapons.

Little Boy

Fatman

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Nuclear Bombs
Hiroshima

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpbCZ8QRpEg&NR=1

Trinity Bomb

30
http://www.metacafe.com/watch/40
0824/trinity_nuclear_weapon_test/

Nuclear Bombs
Hiroshima

Imprint of sitting person

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Nuclear Bombs
Nagasaki

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Fission Reactors
Nuclear power plants
use fission to produce
electric energy
If the chain reaction is
going too quickly,
movable control rods
made of these
elements are inserted
into a core of uranium
fuel in fission reactors

Figure 15.23

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Fission Reactors

15- 34

Fusion Reactions
Fusion
Combination of light nuclei to form heavier
nuclei
A major fusion reaction occurs continuously
in the Sun and other stars:

4 11H 42 He 2 10
This process occurs in several steps :
1
1

H H H
1
1

1
1
1
1

2
1

0
1

H 21H 23 He

H 23 He 42 He 10
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Fusion Reactor
Figure 15.26

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Nuclear Fusion.
Here an experimental fusion reactor at Princeton University.
This uses powerful magnetic fields to confine the fusion
material. This is called a tokamak reactor based on a Soviet
reactor.

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Fusion Reaction Terms

Ignition temperature
Temperature required to initiate a fusion reaction

Breeder reactors
A reactor that produces fuel that can be used in
other reactors

Plasma
An ionized gas that must created and controlled at
temperatures of about 108 K
Melts most container material

Until recently, fusion in reactors required more

energy than was given off
In order to achieve fusion, the gaseous
reactants must be condensed to a small volume
at high temperatures.
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Nuclear Fusion.
Nuclear fusion produces tremendous quantities of energy and
has the potential of becoming the ultimate source of energy on
earth.

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