OSCILLATORS, PLL AND FREQUECY SYNTHESIZERS
Oscillators device that produces oscillations (i.e. generates a repetitive waveform)
converts a dc input voltage to an ac output voltage
Applications:
high-frequency carrier supplies
pilot supplies
clocks
timing circuits
Two Kinds:
free-running oscillators
1. self-sustaining require no external input other than a dc supply voltage
2. continuous
3. repetitive
triggered or one-shot
1. not self-sustaining
Feedback oscillators an amplifier with a feedback loop a path for energy to
propagate from the output back to the input
ex. Free-running oscillators
Barkhausen Criterion to sustain oscillation of feedback circuit
1.) Av 1 around the feedback loop
0
2.) phase shift must be a positive integer multiple of 360
Four requirements for feedback oscillator to work:
1.Amplification
2.Positive feedback has a regenerative feedback
Regenerative must have the correct phase and amplitude
Excessive amplitude amplifier saturates
Insufficient amplitude oscillation cease
3. Frequency determining components
- includes resistors, capacitors, inductors or crystals
4. Power source
Closed-loop feedback amplifier
Input=V1
+
Subtractor
V2
Voltage
amplifier
V
3
Vout
(Aol)
V4
Feedback
Network
()
Aol
- open-loop voltage gain feedback path open circuited
- feedback ratio,
V0
Vi
Acl
- transfer function of the feedback network
- closed-loop voltage gain
- less than the open loop voltage gain
1 passive feedback network
Most common configurations for oscillators:
1.RC phase shift
2.LC tank circuits
3.IC chips (quartz crystals)
Factors considered for type of oscillators:
1. desired frequency of operation
2. required frequency stability
3. variable or fixed frequency operation
4. distortion requirements or limitation
5. desired output power
6. physical size
7. application (i.e. digital or analog)
8. cost
9. reliability and durability
10.desired accuracy
2 Kinds of Oscillators
1. Untuned
Ex. Wien-bridge
untuned RC phase shift oscillators that uses both positive and negative feedback
low-frequency (5 Hz to 1 MHz)
used by HP in their original signal generator design
For a lead-lag network:
At fo:
R = Xc
- 45o phase shift across Z1
+ 45o phase shift across Z2
--------00 total phase shift across the lead-lad
network
At f < fo : phase shift across the network leads
At f > fo : phase shift across the network lags
At extremely low frequency: no output since C1 open circuit
At extremely high frequency: no output since C2 short circuit
Therefore lead-lag network( voltage divider) is:
frequency selective
maximum output voltage at fo
transfer function,
fo
Z2
1
Z1 Z 2 3
1
2RC
with
R1 R2
R R1 R2
and
and
C1 C2
C C1 C2
at fo
at
For the Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
lead lag network positive feedback
resistive voltage divider negative (degenerative) feedback
balanced bridge Vdiff 0
in the voltage divider, ratio of resistors
Rf
is
2:1
non-inverting voltage gain of amplifier A,Rto 1 3
i
Ri
Aol 3
Vo
Vin
At f o
1
3
1
1
3
Loop voltage gain, Aol 3
AGC Automatic Gain Control
added in the circuit to compensate for unbalances in the
bridge and
Rivariations in component values due to heat
replaced with FET
Voltage gain of amplifier automatically compensates for
changes in
2. Tuned amplitude
Oscillator of output signal
- LC oscillator uses tuned LC tank circuits
fo
1
2 LC
at
Q 10
Examples:
1. Hartley Oscillator
amplification for
1
Q is the quiescentAvoperating
point of
Cc transistors
coupling capacitor
Q1
path for regenerative feedback
L1a, L1b and C1 frequency determining components
Vcc dc supply voltage
RFC Radio Frequency Choke
dc short
L1b
determines the proportion of the oscillating energy that is
L1a L1b
fed back to Q1
if less energy damped oscillation
if more saturates the transistor
1
for Hartley oscillators frequency of oscillation
fo
2 LC
W
here
L L1a L1b
C C1
2. Colpitts Oscillator
same as Hartley except that a capacitive divider is used instead of a tapped coil
C1a
C1a C1b
determine the amplitude of feedback signal
fo
1
2 LC
where
and
L L1
C
C1aC1b
C1a C1b
3. Clapp Oscillator
- same with Colpitts except the addition of a small Cs
placed in series with L1
- for large reactance
- in determining the frequency of the tank circuit
- advantage: choose C1a and C1b for optimum feedback
Cs setting the frequency of oscillation
Frequency Stability
- ability of an oscillator to remain at a fixed frequency
2 Kinds:
1. short-term affected by fluctuations in dc operating voltages
2. long term affected by component aging, temperature and humidity
measured in terms of percentage of change in frequency from the
desired
Ex. value
f o 100kHz 5%
95kHz f 105kHz
for commercial FM broadcast station frequency stability/tolerance is 2kHz
or 0.002% tolerance
for commercial AM broadcast station 20 Hz
Factors affecting frequency stability of an oscillator
1. changes in L, C and R due to temperature and humidity
2. changes in Q of transistors and FET
3. AC ripple in dc power supplies
To solve frequency instability, use crystal oscillators instead of LC tank
fo
Usually used for:
frequency counters
electronic navigation system
radio transmitter and receiver
TV
VCRs (video cassette recorders)
Computer system clocks
Crystallography study of the form, structure, properties and classification of crystals
deals with lattice, bonding and behavior of slices of crystal material
Piezoelectric Effect occurs when oscillating mechanical stresses applied across a
crystal lattice structure generate electrical oscillation and vice versa
Stress:
1. compression
2. tension
3. torsion
4. shearing
*** when AC voltage at its natural to is
applied mechanical oscillation occurs
exciting a crystal into mechanical
vibrations
BAW Bulk Acoustic Waves
mechanical vibrations is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
voltage applied
Examples of crystals and
piezoelectric effects:
1. quartz
2. Rochelle salt mostly used in
microphone
3. tourmaline
Synthetic
used
frequency control in oscillators because of its permanence,
4. quartz
ADP, EDT
andforDKT
low temperature coefficient and high mechanical Q.
Crystal Cuts
3 sets of axes:
1. optical z axis
2. electrical x axis
3. mechanical y axis
different crystal cuts results to different frequency
h
65.5
where h = crystal thickness (inches)
fn
fn
= crystal natural resonant frequency (Hz)
thinner crystal wafer gives higher frequency
oscillation
difficult to make crystal oscillators for f > 30 MHz
fragile crystals higher cost
Overtone Crystal Oscillator
harmonically related vibrations that occur simultaneously with the fundamental vibrati
are used (3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th harmonics)
increase frequency to 200 MHz
Harmonics are called overtones because they are not true harmoics
Temperature Coefficient
f k f n xC
where
= change in frequency (Hz)
k temp. coef. (Hz/MHz/oC)
fn natural crystal freq. (MHz)
C
and
- change in temp. (oC)
f o f n f
where
fo
freq. of operation
