Motivation

DEFINITION
Motivation

is concerned
effort toward any goal.

Motivation

with

can be defined as a
process that accounts for an
individuals intensity, direction, and
persistence of efforts towards attaining a
goal.

THREE KEY ELEMENTS IN DEFINITION

Three key Elements

The term motivation is derived from the latin

word movere, which means to move.
Motivation is process that starts with
physiological or psychological deficiency or need
that activates a
behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or
incentive.

Thus the key to understand the process of

motivation lies in the meaning of, and
relationship among needs, drives and incentives.

THE BASIC OF MOTIVATION

PROCESS
Needs
In

Set up

Drives

Incentives
Aims
at

a system sense, motivation consists of these

three interacting and interdependent elements.
Needs
Drive
incentives

CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES
Primary Motives- are unlearned and
physiologically based. e.g. hunger, thirst,
sleep, avoidance of pain, sex, maternal
concern.
General Motives- are unlearned but
not physiologically based. e.g. Curiosity,
and manipulation.
Secondary Motives- are learned e.g.
Need for achievement, power, status and
affiliation.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
The

content theories of motivation: focuses on individual

needs. How different needs may motivate individual behavior.
Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory
Herzbergs Two Factor Model Theory
Alderfers ERG Theory
McClellands acquired needs theory
The process theories: focus on the thought or cognitive
process that take place within the minds of people. (examines
the thought process that motivates individual behavior)
Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Equity Theory of Work Motivation
Goal-setting Theory

HIERARCHY OF NEED THEORY

Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs is the
most well known theory of motivation.
He saw human needs in the form of hierarchy,
ascending from lowest to highest.( he
hypothesized that within every human being,
there exist a hierarchy of five needs.)
He concluded that when one set of needs is
satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a
motivator.
As one need is reasonably satisfied, the next
higher order need becomes operational.
This happens because a satisfied needs no longer
motivate a person only unsatisfied need impel
people to act.

HIERARCHY OF NEED

HIERARCHY OF NEED THEORY CONT.

Physiological- Includes food, thirst, clothing,

shelter, sex and other bodily needs.
Unless these need are satisfied to the degree,
necessary to maintain life, other needs will not
motivate people.
Physiological needs by their very nature are
finite.
Safety- Security and protection from physical
and emotional harm.
This need is less finite than the former.
SocialLove,
affection,
acceptance and friendship.

belongingness,

HIERARCHY OF NEED THEORY

CONT
Esteem- Internal factors such as self-esteem, autonomy,
achievement, sense of competence, mastery and external
factors such as status, recognition and attention.
These needs are infinite in nature.
More dominant at managerial level then at workers level
therefore
assume
considerable
significance
for
managerial motivation.

Self-actualization- Drive to become what one is capable

of becoming, includes growth, achieving ones potential
and self- fulfillment. Need to fulfill oneself; to grow and to
use abilities to fullest and most creative extent.
Highest need in the hierarchy.
It continues to remain an important need in case of those
whose other needs have been reasonably satisfied.

HERZBERGS MOTIVATION- HYGIENE

THEORY

This theory was given by Herzbergs and his

associates.
Another approach to establish link between
individual needs and motivation.
According to this theory there are two classes of
factors.

Extrinsic or Hygiene
factors

Intrinsic or Motivators

HERZBERGS MOTIVATION- HYGIENE THEORY CONT..

Extrinsic factors areCompany policy and administration.

Technical aspect of supervision.
Interpersonal aspect of supervision.
Working conditions.
Base wage or salary
Relationships with peers and subordinates
Status
Job security
Intrinsic factors areAchievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth

HERZBERGS MOTIVATION- HYGIENE THEORY CONT..

HERZBERGS MOTIVATION- HYGIENE THEORY CONT..

Extrinsic

factors

The

or Hygiene

first set of needs

corresponds to
Maslows two lower
order needs
physiological and
safety needs

Intrinsic
The

or Motivators

second set of needs

called motivators
corresponds to
Maslows higher order
social, esteem and selfactualization needs.

HERZBERGS MOTIVATION- HYGIENE THEORY CONT..

Hygiene factors are sources of
job dissatisfaction.
These factors are associated
with job context or work
setting.
They
relate
more
to
environment in which people
work than to the nature of
work itself.
The theory suggest that job
dissatisfaction results when
hygiene factors are poor.
But
it also suggest that
improving hygiene factors will
only
decrease
job
dissatisfaction. But will not
increase job satisfaction.

Motivators are the source of job satisfaction.

These factors are related to job content, the
nature of work.
The presence or absence of these factors
(satisfiers or motivators) are the key link to
satisfaction, motivation and performance.
When motivator factors are minimal, low job
satisfaction
decreases
motivation
and
performance.
When motivator factors are substantial, high
job satisfaction raises motivation and
performance.

ERG THEORY
This

theory was put forth by Clayton

Alderfer.
He reworked on Maslows need hierarchy
and labeled it as ERG Theory.
Alderfer argued that there are three sets
of needs
E- Existence
R- Relatedness
G- Growth

ERG THEORY CONT..

Existence Group- Concerned with providing basic

material existence requirement.
They include Maslows physiological and safety
needs.
Relatedness Group- Concerned with the desire
we have for maintaining important interpersonal
relationship.
This group align with Maslows social needs &
external component of esteem needs.
Growth Group- An intrinsic desire for personal
development.
This group align with Maslows internal component
of esteem needs & self- actualization needs.

ERG THEORY CONT..

Frustration- regression dimension

Maslow argued that an individual will
stay at a certain need level until that need
is satisfied.
ERG

Theory argues that when an higher

order need level is frustrated, the
individuals desire to increase lower level
need takes place.
eg- If an individual is not able to satisfy
his social needs, he may go back to lower
level to earn more money. So frustration
may lead to regression at lower end.

MCCLELLANDS ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY

MCCLELLANDS ACQUIRED NEEDS

THEORY
In 1940s psychologist David I. McClelland and
his co-workers began experimenting with
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as a way
of measuring human needs.
The TAT is a projective technique that ask people
to view pictures and write stories about what
they see.
Researcher believed that these TAT stories
correspond to needs that are acquired overtime
as a result of our life experiences.

MCCLELLANDS ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY CONT..

Need for achievement (nAch): desire to do

something better or more efficiently, to solve
problem or to master complex tasks.
Need for affiliation (nAff): is the desire to
establish and maintain friendly and warm
relations with others.
Need for Power (nPower): is the desire to
control others, to influence their behavior.

MCCLELLANDS ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY CONT..

In terms of practical application:

This theory encourages managers to learn how to identify the
presence of these needs in themselves and in others, since
each need can be linked with a set of work preferences.
Someone with high need for achievement will prefer
individual
responsibilities,
challenging
goals
and
performance feedback.
Someone with high need for affiliation will prefer
interpersonal
relations
and
opportunities
for
communication.
Someone with high need for power seeks influence over
others and likes attention and recognition.

6. VROOMS EXPECTANCY THEORY

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way

depends on the strength of an expectation that
the act will be followed by a given outcome and on
the attractiveness of the outcome to the
individual.
Expectancy of
performance
success

Instrumentality of
success in getting
reward

Valuation of the
reward in
employees eyes

VROOMS EXPECTANCY THEORY CONT..

Expectancy Equation:

Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence

VROOMS EXPECTANCY THEORY CONT..

Expectancy is the probability that work effort would

lead to performance accomplishment. expectancy would
be equal to zero if the person feels it is impossible to
achieve the given performance level. expectancy would be
equal to one if the person is 100 percent certain the
performance could be achieved.
Instrumentality is the probability that performance
will lead to various work outcomes (rewards).
Instrumentality also varies from 0 to 1.
Valence is the value individual place on various work
outcomes (rewards). Valance form a scale from -1 (very
undesirable outcome) to +1 (very desirable outcome).
A zero at any location on the right side of the
expectancy
equation
will
result
in
zero
motivation.

5. ADAMS EQUITY THEORY

Equity Theory states that individuals compare

their jobs inputs and outcomes with those of others
and then respond to eliminate any inequities.
Job Inputs

Outcomes

Efforts
Competence
Education
Experience

Salary Levels
Position
Recognition

ADAMS EQUITY THEORY CONT..

ADAMS EQUITY THEORY CONT..

When ratios are equal: state of equity

exists there is no tension as the situation
is considered fair
When ratios are unequal: tension exists
due to unfairness
Under rewarded states cause anger
Over rewarded states cause guilt
Tension motivates people to act to bring
their situation into equity

EQUITY THEORYS RELEVANT

OTHERS

J. Stacy Adams has proposed that this negative state of

anger provides the motivation to do something to correct
it.
There can be four referent comparisons:
SelfInside

The persons experience in a different job in the same organization

SelfOutside

The persons experience in a different job in a different organization

OtherInside

Another individual or group within the organization

OtherOutside

Another individual or group outside of the organization

7-30

ADAMS EQUITY THEORY CONT..

The referent an employee choose will be influenced

by
The information the employee holds about referent.
Attractiveness of the referent.

Four mediating variable play very important role in

choosing these referent
Gender
Length of service
Level in organization
Amount of education or professionalism

ADAMS EQUITY THEORY CONT..

Reaction to inequity
Now when employees perceives inequity, they
can make any one out of these six choices to
reduce this inequity.
or
Employee behaviors to create equity:
Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person
Leave the field (quit the job)
7-32

ADAMS EQUITY THEORY CONT..

Propositions

relating to inequitable pay:

Paid by time:
Over
rewarded employees produce
more with high quality
Under rewarded employees produce
less with low quality
Paid by quantity:
Over rewarded employees produce less
with higher quality
Under rewarded employees produce
more of low quality

JUSTICE AND EQUITY THEORY

Overall perception of
what is fair in the
workplace.

ADAMS EQUITY THEORY CONT..

Distributive justice is

most strongly related to

pay satisfaction and organizational commitment

ADAMS EQUITY THEORY CONT..

Procedural justice is
Strongly related to
Job satisfaction, employee trust, withdrawal
from the organization and job performance
There is less evidence on interactional justice.