Indoor Air Quality

FSN 1500 Week 10
Indoor Air Quality
Foreword
The quality of the air we breathe is both a

personal health and a major economic
issue
Most people dont consider how vital the
quality of their indoor air is to their health,
so today well focus on some important
indoor air quality concerns
Indoor Air Quality
The average
Westerner spends
about 90% of their life
indoors!
Studies have shown
that indoor air may be
10 - 100 times more
polluted than outdoor
air!
Indoor Air Quality

Some indoor air
quality concerns
include: radon, the
combustion
pollutants and
asbestos.
Indoor Air Quality (Radon)
Radon - colorless, odorless, radioactive gas

formed by the radioactive transformation of
uranium in soil and rock.
238U ---> 222Rn + heat + 4 4 He (alpha particles)
(see next slide)
Example of Radioactive Decay
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Radiogr
aphy/radioactivedecay.htm
Radon gas has a natural tendency to seep upward

through cracks in rocks and soil pore spaces; it may
even rise as a dissolved gas in groundwater
Radon enters a dwelling through cracks in the
foundation or concrete slab, through porous construction
materials (e.g., concrete), through uncapped sumps and
floor drains and through gaps between utilities and the
structures walls and floors (see figure)
The uranium content in soils and rocks and the amount
of radon released does vary
However, nearly every rock and soil type emits

some level of radon so every structure contains
some level of radon
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and the American Lung Association
contend that moderate to long-term exposure to
elevated levels of indoor radon and its
radioactive byproducts is the second-leading
cause of lung cancer
According to the EPA and the U.S.

National Cancer Institute, cigarette
smoking is responsible for approximately
85% of lung cancer cases and prolonged
exposure to radon and its byproducts is
responsible for approximately 10% of lung
cancer cases
How could radon or its byproducts induce

lung cancer? The key concern is the
alpha particles and their potential to
mutate the DNA of the lung wall cells.
The alpha particle is not very energetic; its
penetration power is not great - even a
few centimeters of air dampens its energy
significantly (see figure)
Penetration energies of different types of nuclear radiation
However, if the alpha particle gets released into

our lung cavity, some alpha particles may have
enough energy to penetrate the first few
millimeters of the lung wall and cause mutations
in these cells
When the radon gas enters our dwellings it
mixes well with the other air gases; when you
inhale you could be inhaling some radon atoms
Whats the chance of a radon atom

undergoing radioactive decomposition and
releasing an alpha particle while in your
lungs? For the average adult only about a
1 in 15,000 chance!
Why so low a chance? We need to
examine the residence time of the radon
in the lungs and its half-life.
Most of any adults inhalation gases only

reside in the lungs about 30 seconds
before theyre exhaled or absorbed
Half-life: the time it takes one half of a
substances atoms to radioactively
transform
The measured half-life of radon is about
3.8 days
The 1 in 15,000 chance I mentioned earlier

results from the short residence time of the
radon in the lungs compared to the significantly
longer radon half-life
So why the concern over radon exposure
possibly inducing lung cancer?
The key: radon decomposes to two radioactive
solids - polonium-218 and polonium-214
Polonium-218 and polonium-214 have a

tendency to adhere to aerosols (e.g., dust
and smoke particles) and be drawn into
the lungs
Polonium-218 has a half-life of about 3
minutes, polonium-214 half-life is even
shorter; these elements decompose by
emitting an alpha particle
The lung residence time for aerosols in the

average adult is 30 minutes. Comparing
the residence time and polonium half-lives,
is it likely that alpha particles will be
released into the lung wall?
Inexpensive, fairly accurate tests have been

developed to measure air radon levels but not
polonium levels; we assume the higher the air
radon level the higher the polonium levels
Indoor air radon levels are typically

measured in units of picoCuries per liter
(pCi/L); the picoCurie is a measure of
radioactivity, the liter a measure of air
volume
1 pCi/L corresponds to 133 radon atom
disintegrations in 1 liter of air in 1 hour
The U.S. EPA and other health agencies

suggest that structures with levels at 4 pCi/L or
greater have remediation work conducted
The World Health Organizations action level for
remediation is 2 pCi/L
The following tables illustrate the relative death
risks for nonsmokers and smokers from longterm radon exposure
Radon Level
If 1,000 people who never

smoked were exposed to this
level over a lifetime*...
The risk of cancer from radon

exposure compares to**...
WHAT TO DO:
20 pCi/L
About 36 people could get lung

cancer
35 times the risk of drowning
Fix your home
10 pCi/L

cancer
20 times the risk of dying in a

home fire
Fix your home
8 pCi/L

cancer
4 times the risk of dying in a fall
Fix your home
4 pCi/L

cancer
The risk of dying in a car crash
Fix your home
2 pCi/L
About 4 person could get lung

cancer
The risk of dying from poison
Consider fixing between 2 and 4

pCi/L
1.3 pCi/L

cancer
(Average indoor radon level)
0.4 pCi/L
(Reducing radon levels below

2 pCi/L is difficult.)
(Average outdoor radon level)
Note: If you are a former smoker, your risk may be higher.

* Lifetime risk of lung cancer deaths from EPA Assessment of Risks from Radon in Homes (EPA 402-R-03-003).
** Comparison data calculated using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 1999-2001 National Center for Injury
Prevention and Control Reports.
Radon Level
If 1,000 people who smoked

were exposed to this level
over a lifetime*...
The risk of cancer from radon

exposure compares to**...
WHAT TO DO:
Stop smoking and...
20 pCi/L

250 times the risk of drowning
cancer
Fix your home
10 pCi/L
About 150 people could get lung 200 times the risk of dying in a
cancer
home fire
Fix your home
8 pCi/L

30 times the risk of dying in a fall Fix your home
cancer
4 pCi/L

cancer
5 times the risk of dying in a car

crash
Fix your home
2 pCi/L

cancer
6 times the risk of dying from

poison
Consider fixing between 2 and 4

pCi/L
1.3 pCi/L

cancer
(Average indoor radon level)

cancer
(Average outdoor radon level)
0.4 pCi/L
(Reducing radon
levels below 2 pCi/L is difficult.)
Note: If you are a former smoker, your risk may be lower.

* Lifetime risk of lung cancer deaths from EPA Assessment of Risks from Radon in Homes (EPA 402-R-03-003).
** Comparison data calculated using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 1999-2001 National Center for Injury
Prevention and Control Reports.
Indoor air radon levels as high as 3500

pCi/L have been measured; the outdoor
average level is 0.2 0.4 pCi/L
All indoor air pollution risks (not just radon)
are increased when we live under closed
house (windows and doors sealed tightly
and doors infrequently opened) conditions
(i.e., winter, portions of spring and fall)
The radon lung cancer risk is further enhanced if

significant aerosol production occurs within the
dwelling
If your structure contained elevated radon levels,
how could you possibly reduce these levels?
Two broad approaches: 1) improve crossventilation by natural or artificial means (e.g.,
sub-slab suction)
2) Seal or cover the radon entryways as

effectively as possible (e.g., caulking,
application of gas-impermeable paints,
installation of water permeable/gas
impermeable sump and floor drains)
There are also preconstruction radon
mitigation techniques which can be
employed (see figure for summary)
A = bed of
permeable gravel
(preconstruction)
B = gas impermeable
sheeting
(preconstruction)
C = caulk cracks and
utility openings
(usually post
construction)
D = Sub-slab
ventilation pipe
(usually post
construction)
E = ventilation fan
A dozen or so states now require indoor air

radon testing to be conducted before any
commercial or residential structure is sold.
How is this issue affected by Michigan's (mid1990s) enacted real estate transfer disclosure
statement?
Be forewarned: there is still much controversy,
perhaps unresolvable, concerning what radon
and radon byproduct exposure levels are
necessary to significantly increase lung cancer
risk.
Why the controversy? The only actual human

data we have is from studies of underground
uranium miners, typically exposed to higher
radon and radon byproduct levels for longer
periods than the average adult
There is definitely a linear (positive) relationship
between radon exposure and lung cancer
incidence for underground uranium miners
Can the risk relationship be linearly

extrapolated to lower exposure levels and
times to establish the lung cancer risk for
the general population? The U.S. EPA
thinks this is a valid approach - it employs
what is called a linear dose-response
model (see figure)
(Lung Cancer Incidence)
Response
Actual Data
Linear Model
Threshold Model
Dose
(Radon/Byproduct Exposure)
Some groups have argued that the appropriate

dose-response model is the threshold model
(see previous figure); this suggests the lung
cancer risk wouldnt increase until a certain,
somewhat elevated combination of radon level
and exposure time was exceeded.
Why may we never be able to answer which
model is more appropriate? Why should we
care?
Broadly: we will likely never have the clinical

data to conclusively decide whether the linear or
threshold dose-response model is more
appropriate - yet we must try to make risk
assessments for substance exposures!
This issue illustrates the political and economic
aspects of science and how the layperson could
be mislead (see figures)
Detroit News 3/19/93
In 1998 the U.S. National Cancer Institute

scientists published a report that evaluated eight
previous studies on over 10,000 people in five
countries
Using a linear model approach, they estimated
a 14% increased chance of lung cancer for a
person living in a residence for 30 years that has
air radon levels of 4 pCi/L
Whats the status of the indoor air radon

problem in Michigan? There are definitely
geographic hot spots where elevated levels of
indoor radon have been measured
See the following figures - more detailed
information is available from the state
(Department of Natural Resources), federal
government (EPA) and the American Lung
Association
Michigan Radon Potential Map
High Potential
> 4 pCi/L
Moderate
Potential
2-4 pCi/L
Low Potential
< 2 pCi/L
Source: U.S. EPA, 2005
While the U.S. EPA and U.S. Geological

Survey suggest that only 6% of U.S.
households host air radon levels > 4
pCi/L; note from the previous slides and
your handout that some geographic
regions may have a much higher
percentage of households whose air
radon levels exceed 4 pCi/L
Short-term (days) and long-term (months)

air radon test kits are available; make sure
the kits are EPA approved
A very good long-term (90 days to year) test
kit: Accustar Alpha Track AT 100 (~$20 and
available at Amazon.com)
Indoor Air Quality (Combustion

Pollutants)
Combustion Pollutants - air pollutants resulting

when fossil fuels or other carbon-containing
fuels, or volatile organic compounds, are
inadequately combusted (e.g., not enough
oxygen present) or the combustion gases are
insufficiently vented
Major sources: wood stoves, fireplaces, coal
stoves, gas appliances (water heaters, cooking
ranges, clothes dryers, kerosene heaters,
camping cook stoves)
Example: 2 C(s) + O2(g) 2 CO(9) (carbon monoxide)

Pollutants)
Carbon monoxide (CO) - short term, the most

dangerous of the combustion pollutants; about
1100 people in the U.S., on the average, die
each year from accidental CO poisoning (early
1990s Journal of the American Medical
Association report)
CO bonds about 250 times more effectively than
oxygen to the hemoglobin molecule in your
blood; the oxygen starvation to your organs can
result in death!

Pollutants)
CO is a colorless,
odorless gas; for the
average adult, exposure
to 400 ppm (parts per
million) concentrations of
CO for two hours results
in death
Be aware of low-level CO
exposure symptoms: flulike symptoms,
disorientation,
headaches, fatigue

Pollutants)
Health agencies suggest each home have one

or more CO monitors; the monitors are available
in two types: passive and active
Passive monitors require no power source
(battery or electrical cord) and typically consist
of a small, mountable disk whose surface
changes color as CO gases of different
concentrations pass over the disk (see figure)

Pollutants)
Although passive monitors are cheap, they are

useless unless you are visually monitoring them
Active monitors are available that use a battery,
electrical cord, or both, power source
See handout (and figures), some very good
active monitors are now available for sale

Pollutants)
The most versatile active CO monitors

have two power sources (electrical and
battery backup) and provide a digital
readout of CO levels (see figure)

Pollutants)
Why would health and

safety officials urge
that all electrically
powered CO
detectors be
equipped with a
backup battery? (see
figure)
12/18/2006

Pollutants)
Consumer
advocacy groups
(e.g., Consumer
Reports)
periodically rates
CO monitors (see
figure)

Pollutants)
Listen to the news or periodically scan the

Internet - like any other product, some CO
detectors have been recalled by their
manufacturers for failing to accurately
detect harmful levels of CO or for being
too sensitive (yielding false alarms)
Recent News
Note the
recent law
Oakland Press
3/20/09
Be Aware
Any enclosed space
(automobiles, boats,
tents, hotel rooms)
could be a location
for carbon monoxide
poisoning

Pollutants)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2)

combustion pollutants combine with air water
vapor to create respirable acidic sulfuric and
nitric acid aerosols
The acidic aerosols cause upper respiratory
irritation; the sulfuric acid aerosols are
threatening to people with asthma, allergies or
lung diseases like chronic bronchitis

Pollutants)
Formaldehyde - pungent gas (a volatile organic

compound); found in many household products
including foam insulation; resins in
particleboard, fiberboard and plywood paneling;
some carpeting, upholstery and drapery fabric;
and some plastics
Exposure is commonly associated with eye, nose and

throat irritation; coughing, skin rashes, headaches,
nausea, vomiting and nosebleeds

Pollutants)
The EPA has

classified
formaldehyde as a
probable human
carcinogen (likely
lower risk)
Indoor Air Quality (Asbestos)
Asbestos - collective
name for two families of
minerals that are
flexible, fire-resistant
and durable; one group
of minerals is quite
fibrous and the other
typically consists of
small, brittle needles
(see figure)
Problem: most forms of asbestos can

exist as microscopic, respirable
particles that can remain airborne for
long periods
Inhalation of asbestos particles, especially

the needlelike forms, cause lung tissue
scarring and is linked to several types of
cancer (lung (mesothelioma), stomach)
The asbestos fibers become airborne

typically as the product containing them
(e.g., pipe insulation) decomposes or is
fragmented (may happen accidentally or
during remodeling or demolition)
Unfortunately, health problems may not
become apparent until 15-40 years after
prolonged exposure
Most homes built prior to 1975

probably contain some asbestos in
floor or ceiling tiles, wall and pipe
insulation, wallboard and attic
insulation (see figure)
Local connection? Up to 700,000 Michigan

homeowners (12/6/04 Detroit Free Press, page
B1) may have attic insulation which contains
easily fragmented asbestos
The insulation has the product name Zonolite and
contains a mineral called vermiculite which is
contaminated with the more dangerous form of
asbestos
This product was even produced in a Dearborn,
MI processing plant from 1966-1990
The U.S. is not the

only country facing
this indoor air
quality problem.
During the late 1970s U.S. federal and

state regulations required removal of
identified asbestos-bearing materials studies found that large amounts of
asbestos became airborne during removal
of the materials and that these fibers
remained airborne for months
Today, encapsulation of
asbestos-bearing
materials by sealants or
enclosure construction
is thought to be safer;
removal still done but it
increases risk of
accidental exposure
Be aware; this is still a
relevant issue
Related Issue
During the 1950s and 1960s millions of tons of

asbestos waste were dumped into the Great Lakes
- this has raised concern over whether ingestion of
asbestos particles in drinking water could cause
stomach cancers
Indoor Air Quality
Relatively inexpensive home test kits

exist for the indoor air pollutants we
discussed; contact the American
Lung Association or regional U.S.
EPA office for direction
Indoor air quality is both a health and
a business economic issue: some
buildings have been abandoned or
closed for costly renovations
because of associated sick building
syndrome
Indoor Air Quality
Related note: the U.S. Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention stated in 2012 that an
estimated 25 million Americans have asthma
One possible contributing factor? More airtight
house construction resulting in less crossventilation and an increased exposure to indoor
air pollutants?

Indoor Air Quality

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FSN 1500 Week 10