TUNNELS

TERMINOLOGY for UNDERGROUND

STRUCTURES

Adit.....................................galeri
Tunnel................................tnel
Subway..............................metro
Shaft...................................baca
Chamber............................oda
Portal.................................ana giri veya k
Pilot adit.............................yan galeri, pilot galerisi
Centre................................merkez, eksen
Face...................................ayna
Wall ~ site..........................yan, kenar, duvar
Floor...................................taban
Roof...................................tavan

Overbreak.............................ar sklme
Excavated profile..................kaz profili
Natural archling....................doal kemerlenme
Load......................................yk
Support.................................destek, iksa
Failure...................................yenilme, kme
Gentle failure........................yava yenilme
Rock burst............................kaya patlamas
Squeezing ground................skan zemin
Swelling ground....................ien zemin
Clay-filled joint.......................kil dolgulu eklem
Long term stability.................uzun sreli durayllk
Ground treatment..................zemin iyiletirmesi
Support before excavation....kaz ncesi destekleme

Jet grouted roof cover..............jet grouting ile iyiletirilmi

tavan rts
Shotcrete initial lining..............pskrtme beton
balang izgisi
Jet grouted floor cover............jet grouting ile iyiletirilmi
deme
Top heading............................kalot (Crown)
Invert.......................................stros (Bottom excavation)
Bench......................................zengi izgisi
Final concrete lining................sonuncu beton kaplama
(nihai beton kaplama izgisi)
SHIELD tunnelling method..............KALKAN Yntemi
CUT & COVER tunnelling method....A-KAPA Yntemi
TBM (Full face ~ Total Boring Machine).....TM KEST
KAZI MAKNASI

TERMINOLOGY for EXCAVATIONS of

ROCKS & SOILS

DRILLING....................Sondalama

AUGERING..................Burgulama
MACHINE BORING.....Mekanize tnel ama

Hardness.........................Sertlik
Toughness.......................Dayanm diren
Abrasiveness...................Andrclk
Structure..........................Jeolojik yap
Drilkling fluids..................Sondaj svs

Total Boring Machine (TBM)

Full face excavation

BLASTING...................Patlatma

SCRAPING...................Kazma (makinayla)
RIPPING.......................Krarak kazma
DIGGING......................Kazma
GROUND WATER........yeraltsuyu
Control of groundwater
Groundwater flow
Rate of flow
Volume of flow
Boundaries

TUNNEL DESCRIPTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Made into natural material (rocks)

Empty inside
Carry the loads itself
Both ends are open to atmosphere
Generally horizontal
Thick walled structure looks like cylinder

1- Kilit (anahtar) ta........................Key stone

2- Kemer...........................................Arch
3- Ayak (duvar)................................Wall
4- Taban...........................................Floor
5- zengi..........................................Bench
6- zengi izgisi (dzeyi)...............Bench line or plane
7- Kalot............................................Top heading
8- Stros............................................Invert
9- Ano..............................................Ano (unit)

Tunnel Section for Swelling Ground

1- Digging section
2- Support
3- Swelling section
4- Pressurized area
5- Flow direction of water

SURFACE EXCAVATIONS

Deformation & failure

UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS
In Rock
In Sediment

Stability & Arching

Water

Dry tunnel...............above water table

Wet tunnel..............below water table

Gases

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Methane (CH4)

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)

Other gases

Gas bursts......................gaz patlamas

Rock falls........................kaya dmesi
Rock bursts....................kaya frlamas
Squeezing ground..........ien kabaran zemin
Temperature
Subsidence

EXPLORATION & INVESTIGATIONS

RELATED of SLOPE STABILITY

Geomorphologic maping and preparation of

longitudinal & cross sections
Geological maping & surveyings (aerial
photographs)
Geophysical surveyings
Underground explorations, boreholes
Ground water surveyings
Laboratory tests
Model studies

SURFACE EXCAVATIONS
Permanent
Short term excavations

SUBSURFACE EXCAVATIONS
1.

GEOLOGY
1.
2.
3.
4.

Soil profile or hard rock geology

Structure
Ground water (hydrogeology)
Stability

2.

INVESTIGATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mapping (Topographic, geologic, etc...)

Geophysical surveying (especially seismic
velocity of rocks)
Trial pits & boreholes
General and local stability analysis
Decide to excavation method

UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS
Adit, shaft, incline, large chamber
Tunnel
Subway ~ metro
Underpass
Shelter
Power house
Ware house, store, mining ...etc

GASES
(can be lethal or burst)
Carbon monoxide (CO) 0.97 of air
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
1.53 of air
Methane (CH4)
0.55 of air

(Highly explosive with air) marsh gas

Hydrogene sulphide (H2S) 1.19 of air

(Highly toxic and explosive)
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

ROCK FALL

SQUEEZING GROUND (sand, silt, shale, clay)

ROCK BURST

BULKING (Increase in volume, 10-40%)

FACTORS EFFECTING
EXCAVATION of ROCKS

Mineralogical composition of rocks

Texture & fabric
Petrographic features
Structure
Rock mass
Strike & dip of beds in relation to face of
excavation
Intensity of tectonic disturbances
Degreee of weathering

RESISTANCE of ROCKS to
EXCAVATION

Loose soils
Soil easy to spade (bel ile kazmak)
Soil easy to dig
Crumbling weak rocks (ufalamak)
Rocks easy to blast
Rocks difficult to blast
Rocks very difficult to blast

TUNNELLING METHODS

SHIELD TUNNELLING METHOD

This method involves the use of shield machine to drive

the tunnels below the ground.
After completion of a work shaft, the shield machine is
lowered into the shaft and assembled there before
excavation and construction of the tunnels using precast
concrete lining segments of about 1.2 meter width.
This construction method causes minimal disruption to
traffic and the environment because all the work takes
place below ground and the ground level environment is
unaffected.

CUT and COVER TUNNELLING

METHOD

This construction method, whereby the site is fully

excavated, the structure built and then covered over,
uses diaphragm walls as temporary retaining walls within
the site area.
Step one :Construction of diaphragm walls, pin piles, and
decking.
Step two :Excavation within the diaphragm walls,
installing struts as work progresses.
Step three :Construction of permanent floor slabs and
walls.
Step four : Fitting out the internal structures, backfilling,
and reinstating the surface structures.

TBM (Tunnel Boring Machine)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mechanical-support TBM
Compressed-air TBM
Slurry shield TBM
Earth pressure balance machine
Mixed-face shield TBM

1- Mechanical Support TBM

A mechanical-support TBM has a full-face

cutterhead which provides face support by
constantly pushing the excavated material
ahead of the cutterhead against the
surrounding ground.

2- Compressed-Air TBM

A compressed-air TBM can have either a

full-face cutterhead or excavating arms.
Confinement is achieved by pressurizing
the air in the cutter chamber.

3- Slurry Shield TBM

A slurry shield TBM has a full-face

cutterhead. Confinement is achieved by
pressurizing boring fluid inside the
cutterhead chamber.

4- Earth Pressure Balance Machine

An earth pressure balance machine has a

full-face cutterhead. Confinement is
achieved by pressurizing the excavated
material in the cutterhead chamber.

5- Mix-Face Shield TBM

Mix-face shield TBMs have full-face

cutterheads and can work inclosed or
open mode and with different confinement
techniques.

EFFECT of GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

to TUNNEL EXCAVATION

Effect of soil layers: horizontal, vertical and

inclined layers have different kinds of loading
conditions for tunnels.

Effect of faults: the relation between the fault

slope direction and the tunnel direction, width
of the fault zone, type and thickness of the fill
material and the hydrostatic pressures in both
sides of the fault are some problems in the
tunnelling.

Relation between the fault zone and the tunnel

Tunnel excavations in the slopes: the

discontinuities (layers, fissures) inclined inside
or outside of the slope are very important
regarding the stress and strength of the tunnel.

Effect of the folds: While tunnel is excavated in

an area that contains folded rocks, different
stresses and conditions may occur depending on
the fold type.

Fold axis and the tunnel direction is parallel

Fold axis and the tunnel direction is vertical

CLASSIFICATION of
ROCKS for TUNNELING
PURPOSES

Classification of rocks for engineering purposes

is needed in analyzing the project costs and to
obtain an economic and reliable solution.

The classification of the rocks, that the tunnel

will be constructed in, is first done by Terzaghi.
But, it is too general and gives qualitative
results.

TUNNEL ROCK CLASSIFICATION by TERZAGHI

Laufer classified tunnel rocks to 7 groups according to stand-up time

Rock classification and determination of unsupported span

URFA IRRIGATION
TUNNEL

ONE of the LONGEST IRRIGATION TUNNELS in

the WORLD

Consist of two concrete lined tunnels

each of which is 7.62 m in diameter and
26.4 km in length discharging water
from the reservoir of Atatrk Dam.