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OBJECTIVES
Become aware of the basic atomic
structure of conductors such as copper and
aluminum and understand why they are
used so extensively in the field.
Understand how the terminal voltage of a
battery or any dc supply is established and
how it creates a flow of charge in the
system.
Understand how current is established in a
circuit and how its magnitude is affected by
the charge flowing in the system and the
time involved.
OBJECTIVES
Become familiar with the factors that
affect the terminal voltage of a battery
and how long a battery will remain
effective.
Be able to apply a voltmeter and
ammeter correctly to measure the
voltage and current of a network.
INTRODUCTION
Now that the foundation for the study of
electricity/electronics has been established, the
concepts of voltage and current can be
investigated.
The term voltage is encountered practically every day.
We are aware that most outlets in our homes are 120
volts.
VOLTAGE
If we separate the
29th electron in Fig.
2.2 from the rest of the
atomic structure of
copper by a dashed
line as shown in Fig.
2.4(a), we create
regions that have a
net positive and
negative charge as
shown in Fig. 2.4(b)
and (c).
VOLTAGE
This positive region created by
separating the free electron from the
basic atomic structure is called a
positive ion.
In general, every source of voltage is
established by simply creating a
separation of positive and negative
charges.
VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE
Since it would be inconsequential to talk
about the voltage established by the
separation of a single electron, a package
of electrons called a coulomb (C) of
charge was defined as follows:
One coulomb of charge is the total charge
associated with 6.242 x 1018 electrons.
If a total of 1 joule (J) of energy is used to move
the negative charge of 1 coulomb (C), there is a
difference of 1 volt (V) between the two points.
VOLTAGE
Since the potential energy
associated with a body is defined by
its position, the term potential is often
applied to define voltage levels.
For example, the difference in potential
is 4 V between the two points, or the
potential difference between a point
and ground is 12 V, and so on.
CURRENT
The applied voltage is the starting
mechanismthe current is a reaction to
the applied voltage.
CURRENT
CURRENT
CURRENT
The unit of current measurement,
ampere, was chosen to honor the efforts
of Andr Ampre in the study of
electricity in motion.
CURRENT
In summary, therefore, the applied
voltage (or potential difference) in an
electrical/electronics system is the
pressure to set the system in
motion, and the current is the reaction
to that pressure.
CURRENT
Safety Considerations
It is important to realize that even small
levels of current through the human body
can cause serious, dangerous side effects.
Experimental results reveal that the human
body begins to react to currents of only a
few milliamperes.
Although most individuals can withstand
currents up to perhaps 10 mA for very short
periods of time without serious side effects,
any current over 10 mA should be
considered dangerous.
VOLTAGE SOURCES
The term dc, used
throughout this text, is
an abbreviation for
direct current, which
encompasses all
systems where there
is a unidirectional (one
direction) flow of
charge.
FIG. 2.11 Standard symbol
for a dc voltage source.
VOLTAGE SOURCES
In general, dc voltage sources can be
divided into three basic types:
Batteries (chemical action or solar
energy)
Generators (electromechanical), and
Power supplies (rectificationa
conversion process to be described in
your electronics courses).
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Batteries
General Information
Primary Cells (Non-rechargeable)
Secondary Cells (Rechargeable)
Lead-Acid
NickelMetal Hydride (NiMH)
Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Batteries
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Batteries
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Batteries
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Batteries
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Batteries
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Solar Cell
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Generators
The dc generator is quite different from the
battery, both in construction and in mode of
operation.
When the shaft of the generator is rotating at the
nameplate speed due to the applied torque of
some external source of mechanical power, a
voltage of rated value appears across the external
terminals.
The terminal voltage and power-handling
capabilities of the dc generator are typically higher
than those of most batteries, and its lifetime is
determined only by its construction.
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Generators
FIG. 2.18 dc
generator.
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Power Supplies
The dc supply
encountered most
frequently in the
laboratory uses the
rectification and
filtering processes
as its means
toward obtaining a
steady dc voltage.
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Power Supplies
FIG. 2.20 dc laboratory supply: (a) available terminals; (b) positive voltage with
respect to (w.r.t.) ground; (c) negative voltage w.r.t. ground; (d) floating supply.
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Fuel Cells
One of the most exciting developments in
recent years has been the steadily rising
interest in fuel cells as an alternative
energy source.
Fuel cells are now being used in small
stationary power plants, transportation
(buses), and a wide variety of applications
where portability is a major factor, such as
the space shuttle.
Millions are now being spent by major
automobile manufacturers to build
affordable fuel-cell vehicles.
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Fuel Cells
VOLTAGE SOURCES
Fuel Cells
AMPERE-HOUR RATING
The most important piece of data for any
battery (other than its voltage rating) is its
ampere-hour (Ah) rating.
You have probably noted in the
photographs of batteries in this chapter that
both the voltage and the ampere-hour
rating have been provided for each battery.
The ampere-hour (Ah) rating provides an
indication of how long a battery of fixed voltage
will be able to supply a particular current.
FIG. 2.25 Terminal voltage versus discharge time for specific drain
currents for an Energizer D cell.
FIG. 2.26 Various types of insulators and their applications. (a) Fi-Shock extender
insulator; (b) Fi-Shock corner insulator; (c) Fi-Shock screw-in post insulator.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are a specific group
of elements that exhibit
characteristics between those of
insulators and those of conductors.
Semiconductor materials typically
have four electrons in the outermost
valence ring.
APPLICATIONS
Flashlight
12 V Car Battery Charger
Answering Machines/Phones dc
Supply
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS