Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Hill Roads Self
Hill Roads Self
Hill Roads
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Types of Retaining
Structures
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Retaining Walls
BACK SOIL
GL1
(a) Conventional RWs and (b) Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls (MSE)
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MSE Walls
a) Panel Walls,
b) Concrete Block Walls, and
c) Temporary Earth Walls
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Flexible RWs
Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls
Anchored Sheet Pile Walls or Anchored Bulkheads
Braced or Strutted Structures
Timber Crib Walls
Gabion Walls
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is
not
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2. Semi-gravity Walls
o Not as heavy as gravity walls.
o A small amount of reinforcement is used for
reducing the mass of concrete or minimizing the
size of wall sections.
o A specialized form of gravity walls is a semigravity retaining wall.
o These have some tension reinforcing steel
included so as to minimize the thickness of the
wall without requiring extensive reinforcement.
o They are a blend of the gravity wall and the
cantilever wall designs.
consist
of
relatively
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4. Counterfort Walls
o Similar to cantilever walls except that the stem of the
walls span horizontally between vertical brackets known
as counterforts.
o Similar to cantilever walls except they have thin vertical
concrete webs at regular intervals along the backside of
the wall. These webs are known as counterforts.
o Counterforts tie the slab and base together, and the
purpose of them is to reduce the shear forces and
bending moments imposed on the wall by the soil. A
secondary effect is to increase the weight of the wall
from the added concrete.
o Can be precast or formed on site.
o More economical than cantilever walls for heights above
8 m (25 ft).
5. Buttressed Walls
o Similar to counterfort walls except the brackets or
buttress walls are provided on the opposite side of
the backfill.
Similar to Cantilever retaining walls, but thin slab
stems may be used at some interval to tie the
base slab and stem in order to reduce the shear
force and bending moment for more economical
design
6. Gabion Walls
Gabions
are
multi-celled,
welded
wire
or
rectangular wire mesh boxes, which are then
rockfilled, and used for construction of erosion
control structures and to stabilize steep slopes.
Their applications include,
- Retaining walls,
- Bridge abutments,
- Wing walls,
- Culvert headwalls,
- Outlet aprons,
- Shore and beach protection walls, and
- Temporary check dams.
7. Crib Walls
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A) Panel Walls,
B) Concrete Block Walls, and
C) Temporary Earth Walls
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Stability Checks
To check the stability of a retaining wall, the
following steps are necessary:
1. Check for overturning about its toe
2. Check for sliding along its base
3. Check for bearing capacity failure of the base
4. Check for settlement
5. Check for overall stability
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River Training
'River training' refers to the structural measures which are taken to
improve ariverand its banks.
River trainingis an important component in the prevention and
mitigation of flash floods and general flood control, as well as in other
activities such as ensuring safe passage of a flood under a bridge.
When the banks of a river about to erode or fail, it is take immediate
measure to protect the banks.
In Alluvial Rivers, the water flows in large width and has the tendency
to erode side banks and submerge side areas.
While designing bridges across such rivers, it is very difficult to decide
the position of river due to uncertainty about the direction of their flow.
There is always a danger that it may erode its one bank and change its
course and may start flowing outside the constructed work.
At such places some special types of works are needed and known as
River Training Works.
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Guide Bunds/Banks
Necessity:
Guide bunds are meant to confine and guide the
river flow through the structure without causing
damage to it and its approaches.
They also prevent the out flanking of the
structure.
be
divergent
upstream
or
Spurs
When the river starts erosion of bank and
changing of its course, the spurs or spurs are
constructed to deflect the current away from the
bank.
Spurs are the structures built transverse to the
river flow extending from the river bank.
If spurs are built in series, the bank can be
completely protected.
A spur is a structure constructed transverse to the
river flow and is projected form the bank into the
river.
Permeable Spurs
Impermeable Spurs
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Narayani river
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Marginal Bunds
Marginal bunds are provided to contain the spread
of the river when the river in flood spills over its
banks upstream of the bridge site over wide area
and likely to spill in the neighbouring water
courses or cause other damages.
The marginal bund should normally be built well
away from the active area of the river.
The slope should be well protected by turfing.
Where a marginal bund has to be built in the
active area of the river, it should be protected with
pitching and apron.
The earth for the construction of marginal bund
should preferably be obtained form the river side.
The upper end of the marginal bund should be
anchored into high ground well above HFL.
Marginal bunds should be inspected every year
along with the annual bridge inspection and
Closure Bunds
Sometimes it may be necessary to entirely block one or more
channels of the river in order to prevent the discharge of such
channels developing into a main river channel after the
construction of the bridge.
This is done by providing a closure bund.
The bund is designed as an earthen dam.
The same is generally constructed at some distance from the
railway line.
Special care should be exercised to guard it against its failure.
It should be inspected every year after the monsoon and
necessary repairs carried out.
Cut- Offs
Sometimes
when
very
heavy
meandering
develops near bridges and there is a danger of its
encroaching too heavily into the still water area or
otherwise dangerously approaching the railway
embankment, it becomes necessary to dig a cutoff channel which will ultimately develop and help
in the diversion of water through it.
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i)
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3.
4.
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Riprap
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Soil-cement riprap
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Landslide Stabilization
Structures
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hills
or
Earth Flow
Landslides
Solifluction
Debris slide or
slump
Creep
Rock slides
Rapid flows
Subsidence
Plastic flow
collapse
Rock falls
Landslides
If a mass of earth moves along a definite plane or
surface the failure is termed as Landslide.
Large block known as a slump block moves during
the landslide.
The scar above a landslide is easily visible.
They can occur along a slope where the internal
resistance of the rocks are reduced or they loose
their holding capacity.
Common after earthquakes or after removal of part
of the slope due to construction, particularly for
construction of roads.
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Causes of Landslides
1) Landslide Triggers
(i) Cloud burst (200-1000mm/day)
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(ii)
(iii)
Toe
cutting
may
activate
failure
by
overtopping of rock blocks or slides in
colluvium.
(iv)
Earthquake
(v)
Blasting
(vi)
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2) Causes
A)
Deforestation
(ii)
Blasting quarrying
Undermining, tunnelling
(ii)
C)
D)
Geological conditions
(i) Minral composition, rock type, structure etc.
(Shrestha B.D, 2000)
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Causes of Landslides
Internal Causes
Influence of slope - Provides favourable condition for landslides;
steeper slope are prone to slippage of land. It is known that most of
the materials are stable upto certain angle- Critical angle or
angle of repose it varies from 30 0 for unconsolidated sediments
to 900 for massive rocks and 60 0-900 for partially jointed rocks.
Ground water or associated water- Main factor responsible for
slippage. Suppose the hard or massive rocks are underlained by
softer rocks (shale or clay bed)
When rain water percolates through some fractures or joints the
clayey beds becomes very plastic and acts as slippery base, which
enhance the chances of loose overburden to slip downward.
Water is the most powerful solvent, which not only causes
decomposition of minerals but also leaches out the soluble matter
of the rock and reduces the strength.
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External Factors
Most common is the vibration resulted due to earthquakes;
blasting to explosives; volcanic eruption etc.
Earthquakes often initiate mass failures on large scale eg. 1897
Assam quake produced gigantic landslide ever recorded in the
region.
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Preventive Measures
The main factors which contribute to landslides are
Slope, water content, geological structure,
unconsolidated or loose sediments, lithology
and human interference.
Slope: Retaining wall may be constructed against
the slopes, which can prevents rolling down of
material. Terracing of the slope is an effective
measure.
Effect of Water: Make proper drainage network
for quick removal of percolating moisture or rain
water by constructing ditches and water ways
along the slope
Geological structures: Weak planes or zones
may covered or grouted to prevent percolation of
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Soil Bioengineering
Structures for Slope Stabilization
Soil Bioengineering is a useful and effective technology for slope stabilization and soil
conservation.
Soil bioengineering is defined as the use of living plant materials to construct
structures that perform an engineering function.
The technology is now widely used for slope stabilization and soil conservation in
many countries that experience slope instability.
Soil bioengineering structures used for slope stabilization include retaining walls,
check dams and mechanical barriers for fixing loose soil on landslides and fill slopes.
In addition to slope stabilization, soil bioengineering structures are also used to
control gully and river bank erosion.
Gullies commonly occur on landslides and fill slopes if treatment is not given in time
and landslides are also triggered by undercutting from river and channel erosion.
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Retaining Walls
Soil bioengineering retaining walls are effective in stabilizing slips and
small landslides.
Different types of soil bioengineering retaining walls have been used
for stabilizing landslides in different parts of the world.
Among these, the most common soil bioengineering retaining
walls are vegetated soft gabions, live brushwood, geo
textiles and timber crib walls.
In Pakistan the vegetated soft gabion walls and live brushwood
retaining walls were constructed on a large scale in earthquake
affected areas and have proved effective and economical for small
landslides.
The vegetated soft gabion and live brushwood retaining walls are also
combined with gabion, stone masonry and concrete walls to reduced
cost of engineering structures for slope stabilization.
The selection of the type of bioengineering retaining wall for a
particular site depends on the availability of the material required at
the particular site and for the favored construction method.
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A 15cm thick soil layer is placed on the bags and branches of the living woody plants
and rooted seedlings are placed above the soil layer in such a way that their basal
(butt) ends reaches the mother soil of the slope.
The soil is placed on the brushhedge layers and compacted well.
Above the brush layer another layer of bags is placed width wise by giving a step of
2035cm.
The soil from the upslope is scrapped for filling the space behind the bags and
compacted properly.
A second layer of brush layer treatment is given above the bags as explained above.
The process is repeated till the required height of the retaining wall is reached.
After rooting and sprouting, thick vegetation is established at the toe of the landslide
(Photo 1a, 1b and 1c). By the time the synthetic bags rot the vegetation is
established and the slope is stabilized permanently.
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For establishing live brushwood retaining walls, poles of tree species such
as Marmele sp. (Amare fuik), Jatropha sp., Cordia spp. and Ficus spp. are
driven at the toe of a small landslide at 1m spacing across the toe of the
slope. The length of the poles should be 1.5m (minimum). Brushwood
bundles having 15cm diameter from any tree, bush or grass species
available near the site are prepared and placed along the uphill side of the
poles. Coconut or palm leaves along with their stalks are the best suited
material for this purpose. The soil is pushed from the upslope and firmly
packed behind the brushwood bundles or coconut leave stalks. After
attaining 30cm height, brush layering treatment is carried out by using
the brushwood of trees species with high growth. The placed brushwood is
covered with soil which is then compacted. Only 10cm length of the tail
ends of the brushwood is projected out of the brushwood wall. Brushwood
bundles or palm leaves are again placed above brush layer treatment and
the soil is filled as described above. The second layer of brushwood is
placed and the process is repeated till the top of the poles is reached
(Photos 2, 3 and 4). If the pole is less than the required height of the
retaining wall, another live brush retaining wall is established after giving
a step of 1m. The poles and the fresh brushwood used in brush layers
quickly sprout, creating a live vegetation retaining wall. By the
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When the fill material is damped into openings between the poles,
large hollow spaces should be avoided to ensure that the branches
are in touch with the soil and will root properly.
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Large gullies often develop along the sides of paths and roads.
Small gullies (less than 25cm deep) can usually be controlled by
making contour ditches and ridges.
With large gullies this is not enough.
They must be blocked to stop the erosion.
Gullies that are not blocked will continue to grow deeper, causing
more and more good soil to be washed away during heavy rain.
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Brush fills
Brush fill is a continuous filling of small gullies with brush, branches of trees, stems of
bushy vegetation, etc. This method is also called brush plug and is especially economical
where brush is plentiful.
Earth plugs
Earth plugs, which are small structures, are constructed across the gullies. Their main
purpose is to hold water and let it percolate into the ground (see also
surface groundwater recharge). In non-humid regions, small gullies which are not deeper
than 2 metres, with agullybed gradient of less than 10 per cent, can bestabilisedby a
series of earth plugs. In humid regions, earth plugs must be combined with small
diversions. Distribution of earth plugs depends on thegullychannel's gradient.
Woven-wire check dams
Woven-wire check dams are small barriers which are usually constructed to hold fine
material in thegully. They are used in gullies with moderate slopes (not more than 10 per
cent) and small drainage areas that do not have flood flows which carry rocks and
boulders.
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