5.

Hill Roads
5.1

Introduction

5.2

Special Consideration in Hill Roads

5.2.1 Alignment of Hill Road Design: General Consideration, Route

Location in Hills, Gradient, Design and Types of Hair Pin Bends,
Different Types of Hill Road Cross-sections
5.3

Special Structures in Hill Roads

5.3.1 Types of Retaining Structures, River Training Structures,

Landslide Stabilization Structures and Gully Control Structures
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Types of Retaining
Structures

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Retaining Walls

Structures designed and constructed to sustain

the earth pressure.
structure used to retain soil, rock or other
materials.
Retaining walls are usually built to hold back soil
mass. However, retaining walls can also be
constructed for aesthetic landscapingGL2
purposes.

BACK SOIL
GL1

 Most Common Materials Used for RWs

are:
- Wood sheets;
- Steel and plastic interlocking sheets;
- Reinforced concrete sheets;
- Precast concrete elements (crib walls and block
walls);
- Closely spaced in-situ soil-cement piles;
- Wire-mesh boxes (gabions);
- Anchors into the soil or rock mass (soil nailing).

Types of Retaining Structures

Classification of RWs by Various Aspects
(a) Externally Stabilized RWs and (b) Internally Stabilized RWs

(a) Conventional RWs and (b) Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls (MSE)

(a) Rigid RWs and (b) Flexible RWs

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Conventional Retaining Walls

1. Gravity retaining walls
2. Semi-gravity retaining walls
3. Cantilever retaining walls
4. Counterfort retaining walls
5. Buttress retaining walls
6. Crib Walls
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MSE Walls
a) Panel Walls,
b) Concrete Block Walls, and
c) Temporary Earth Walls

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Rigid Retaining Walls

1. Gravity RWs
2. Semi-gravity retaining walls
3. Cantilever RWs
4. Counterfort RWs
5. Buttressed RWs
6. Building Basement Walls
7. Bridge Abutments
8. Concrete Crib Walls
9. Concrete Grid Walls

Flexible RWs
Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls
Anchored Sheet Pile Walls or Anchored Bulkheads
Braced or Strutted Structures
Timber Crib Walls
Gabion Walls

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Classification of Retaining Walls

They can be divided into two major categories:
(a)Conventional Retaining Walls
(i) Gravity Retaining Walls Masonry (brick or stone) or Plain
concrete
(ii) Semi-gravity Retaining Walls - Masonry or Plain concrete or
RCC
(iii)Cantilever Retaining Walls - RCC (Inverted T and L)
(iv)Counterfort Retaining Walls - RCC
(v) Buttress Retaining Walls - RCC
(vi)Crib Walls, etc.
(b) Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls

1. Gravity Retaining Walls

Gravity walls are the earliest known
retaining structures.
Constructed with plain concrete or stone
masonry. They are built from solid
concrete or rock rubble mortared
together.
They depend on their own weight and
any soil resting on the masonry for
stability.
This type of construction
economical for high walls.

is

not

Gravity walls are economical for heights

up to 3 m (10 feet).
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 The lateral forces from backfill is resisted by the

weight of wall itself, and due to their massive
nature, they develop little or no tension.
Therefore, they are usually not reinforced with
steel.

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2. Semi-gravity Walls
o Not as heavy as gravity walls.
o A small amount of reinforcement is used for
reducing the mass of concrete or minimizing the
size of wall sections.
o A specialized form of gravity walls is a semigravity retaining wall.
o These have some tension reinforcing steel
included so as to minimize the thickness of the
wall without requiring extensive reinforcement.
o They are a blend of the gravity wall and the
cantilever wall designs.

3. Cantilever Retaining Walls

o Made of reinforced concrete and
thinstemand abase slab.
o Base slab is the cantilever portion.

consist

of

relatively

o Base is also divided into two parts, theheelandtoe.

o Heel is the part of the base under the backfill.
o Toe is the other part of the base.
o Resists pressure due to its bending action.
o Usually made of reinforced cement concrete (RCC).
Use much less concrete than monolithic gravity walls, but require
more design and careful construction.
Generally economical up to about 8m (25 ft.) to 10m (32 ft.) in
height.
Can be precast in a factory or formed on site.
More convenient and relatively economical for design.
Rankines and Coulombs theories can be used to find active
earth pressure on the wall.

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4. Counterfort Walls
o Similar to cantilever walls except that the stem of the
walls span horizontally between vertical brackets known
as counterforts.
o Similar to cantilever walls except they have thin vertical
concrete webs at regular intervals along the backside of
the wall. These webs are known as counterforts.
o Counterforts tie the slab and base together, and the
purpose of them is to reduce the shear forces and
bending moments imposed on the wall by the soil. A
secondary effect is to increase the weight of the wall
from the added concrete.
o Can be precast or formed on site.
o More economical than cantilever walls for heights above
8 m (25 ft).

 It is just like a cantilever wall but much longer as

compared to cantilever wall. If it is to be used for
even longer distances some supports are provided
to it at required intervals.
Counterforts that tie the wall and the base slab
together. The purpose of the counterforts is to
reduce the shear and the bending moments.

5. Buttressed Walls
o Similar to counterfort walls except the brackets or
buttress walls are provided on the opposite side of
the backfill.
Similar to Cantilever retaining walls, but thin slab
stems may be used at some interval to tie the
base slab and stem in order to reduce the shear
force and bending moment for more economical
design

6. Gabion Walls
Gabions
are
multi-celled,
welded
wire
or
rectangular wire mesh boxes, which are then
rockfilled, and used for construction of erosion
control structures and to stabilize steep slopes.
Their applications include,
- Retaining walls,
- Bridge abutments,
- Wing walls,
- Culvert headwalls,
- Outlet aprons,
- Shore and beach protection walls, and
- Temporary check dams.

7. Crib Walls

Crib walls have been made of

various materials including wood,
concrete and even plastic.
The cribs are made of interlocking
headers and stretchers that are
stacked like the walls of a log cabin.
Crib walls are usually quite large and
can be out of scale and character
with the surrounding landscape.
In addition, heavy construction
equipment is required to lay the
courses, possibly impacting sensitive
areas.
It can be used for moderate heights
of 4m to 6m.

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Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls

These walls are among the most economical, and most
commonly constructed.
Contrary to other types, the MSE walls are supported by the
soil, and not the other way around.
They are supported by selected fills (granular) and held
together by reinforcements, which can be either metallic
strips or plastic meshes.
The MSE Categories are

A) Panel Walls,
B) Concrete Block Walls, and
C) Temporary Earth Walls

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 Nowadays, the main components of these types of walls are

Backfillwhich is granular soil
Reinforcement in the backfill
A cover (or skin) on the front face
The reinforcement can be thin galvanized steel strips, geogrid,
or geotextile for descriptions of geogrid and geotextile).
In most cases, precast concrete slabs are used as skin. The
slabs are grooved to fit into each other so that soil cannot flow
between the joints.
Thin galvanized steel also can be used as skin when the
reinforcements are metallic strips.
When metal skins are used, they are bolted together, and
reinforcing strips are placed between the skins.
Have their backfills stabilized by insertion of reinforcing
elements such as metal strips, bars, welded wire mats,
geotextiles, and geogrids.
These walls are relatively flexible and can sustain large
horizontal and vertical displacement without much damage.

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To Design Retaining Walls Properly .

.. an engineer must know the basic soil parameters (unit
weight, angle of friction, and cohesion) of the soil retained
behind the wall and the soil below the base slab.
Knowing the properties of the soil behind the wall enables
the engineer to determine the lateral pressure distribution
that has to be designed for.
There are two phases in the design of conventional
retaining walls.
First, with the lateral earth pressure known, the structure as
a whole is checked for stability. That includes checking for
possible overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity failures.
Second, each component of the structure is checked for
adequate strength, and the steel reinforcement of each
component is determined.
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Stability Checks
To check the stability of a retaining wall, the
following steps are necessary:
1. Check for overturning about its toe
2. Check for sliding along its base
3. Check for bearing capacity failure of the base
4. Check for settlement
5. Check for overall stability

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Common Failure Modes a) Bearing Capacity

Failure b) Sliding
c) Overturning

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Proposed Road Section in a Cut(a) and

a Fill(b) and Resulting Failure Surfaces

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River Training Structures

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River Training
'River training' refers to the structural measures which are taken to
improve ariverand its banks.
River trainingis an important component in the prevention and
mitigation of flash floods and general flood control, as well as in other
activities such as ensuring safe passage of a flood under a bridge.
When the banks of a river about to erode or fail, it is take immediate
measure to protect the banks.
In Alluvial Rivers, the water flows in large width and has the tendency
to erode side banks and submerge side areas.
While designing bridges across such rivers, it is very difficult to decide
the position of river due to uncertainty about the direction of their flow.
There is always a danger that it may erode its one bank and change its
course and may start flowing outside the constructed work.
At such places some special types of works are needed and known as
River Training Works.
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Objective of River Training

To deflect the river from a bank and stop its erosion.
To provide protection work along the banks of river, so
that it may not damage and submerge cultivated and
inhabited lands.
To provide the minimum width of river required at the
site of the bridge, so that the bridge can be
constructed economically.
If the navigation is to be done in river, river training
works provide greater depth of water for this purpose.

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To prevent out-flanking of bridges or other such types

of construction works across the river and to train the
river to flow in straight reach both u/s and d/s at the

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Reasons of Failure of River Banks

The river banks may fail due to any one of the
following reasons:
Erosion of soil by river currents or waves.
Excessive hydrostatic pressure in the material in
the bank.
Slip-circle failure
Liquefaction and subsequent movement of soil
mass
Bank protection measures may be found
necessary to deflect the course of rivers.

Things to Remember While Providing

Protection Works
River Training/Protection Works will have to be
decided depending on the Reach in which the River
is situated namely:
a) Upper Reaches (Mountainous)
b) Sub-montane Reaches (Foot hills)
c) Quasi-alluvial Reaches (Trough)
d) Alluvial Reaches, and
e) Tidal Reaches

Types of River Training Works/ River Bank

Protection Structures

1. Guide Bunds or Levees or Marginal Embankments

2. Spurs (Groynes)
3. Marginal Bunds
4. Closure Bunds
5. Assisted Cut-offs
6. Pitching of Banks and Subsiding Aprons
7. Pitched Islands
8. Silts and Closing Dykes

Guide Bunds/Banks
Necessity:
Guide bunds are meant to confine and guide the
river flow through the structure without causing
damage to it and its approaches.
They also prevent the out flanking of the
structure.

Types of Guide Bunds

Can either
parallel.

be

divergent

upstream

or

According to geometrical shape, the guide

bunds may be straight or elliptical.

Spurs
When the river starts erosion of bank and
changing of its course, the spurs or spurs are
constructed to deflect the current away from the
bank.
Spurs are the structures built transverse to the
river flow extending from the river bank.
If spurs are built in series, the bank can be
completely protected.
A spur is a structure constructed transverse to the
river flow and is projected form the bank into the
river.

Types of Spurs /Groynes

i)
ii)

Permeable Spurs
Impermeable Spurs

) Permeable Spurs - useful when concentration of suspended

sediment load is heavy; they allow water to pass through.
) Impermeable Spurs are made of solid core, constructed of
stones or earth and stones with exposed faces protected
by pitching. These spurs can with stand severe attack
better than permeable spurs.

ii) Spurs may be classified as

(a) Repelling (Deflecting)
(b) Attracting and
(c) Neutral (Sedimenting).
Repelling (Deflecting) Spurs are those which
incline upstream at an angle of 60 degree to 70
degree to the river course and deflect the current
towards the opposite bank. They cause silting in
still water on the upstream pocket.
Attracting Spurs incline downstream and make the
deep channel flow continuously along their noses.
They cause scour just on the downstream side of
the head due to turbulence. The river flow is
attracted towards the spur.
Normal (Holding or Sedimenting) Spurs are those
which are built at right angles to the bank to keep
the stream in a particular position and promote
silting between the spurs. They have practically no
effect on the diversion of the current and are

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iii) Spurs are also classified as

Full Height Spurs and
Part Height Spurs.
Where top level is higher than HFL, it is called a
full height spur.
iv) Spurs are also constructed extending into the
stream with a "T" head or hockey stick shaped head,
properly armoured to hold the river at a distance.
A series of such spurs/groynes correctly positioned
can hold the river at a position away from the
point intended to be protected.
The edge of the "T" head should be curved
somewhat in the manner of a guide bund to avoid
swirls.

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Narayani river

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Marginal Bunds
Marginal bunds are provided to contain the spread
of the river when the river in flood spills over its
banks upstream of the bridge site over wide area
and likely to spill in the neighbouring water
courses or cause other damages.
The marginal bund should normally be built well
away from the active area of the river.
The slope should be well protected by turfing.
Where a marginal bund has to be built in the
active area of the river, it should be protected with
pitching and apron.
The earth for the construction of marginal bund
should preferably be obtained form the river side.
The upper end of the marginal bund should be
anchored into high ground well above HFL.
Marginal bunds should be inspected every year
along with the annual bridge inspection and

Closure Bunds
Sometimes it may be necessary to entirely block one or more
channels of the river in order to prevent the discharge of such
channels developing into a main river channel after the
construction of the bridge.
This is done by providing a closure bund.
The bund is designed as an earthen dam.
The same is generally constructed at some distance from the
railway line.
Special care should be exercised to guard it against its failure.
It should be inspected every year after the monsoon and
necessary repairs carried out.

Cut- Offs

Sometimes
when
very
heavy
meandering
develops near bridges and there is a danger of its
encroaching too heavily into the still water area or
otherwise dangerously approaching the railway
embankment, it becomes necessary to dig a cutoff channel which will ultimately develop and help
in the diversion of water through it.

Assisted Cut- Offs

Sometimes when very heavy meandering develops
near bridges and there is a danger of its encroaching
too heavily into the still water area or otherwise
dangerously approaching the railway embankment, it
becomes necessary to dig a cut-off channel which will
ultimately develop and help in the diversion of water
through it.
To effect economy, a pilot channel cut is usually
made when there is low flow in the river and full
development of the channel takes place during the
flood.

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 This cut off channel should preferably have

(i)
atleast three times the rivers straight regime
slope and
(ii)
the upstream end should take off from where the
bed load of main channel has less than the
average amount of coarse material i. e. from the
active part of the channel where the velocity is
more.
()The entrance to the pilot cut should be bell shaped to
facilitate entry of water.
()The chord loop ratio should normally be greater than 1
to 5 if a successful channel is to develop.
()Cut off should be planned with care taking all relevant
factors into account
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Assisted Cut- Offs

Protection of Approach Banks

1.

Approach banks of bridges may be subjected to

severe attack under the following conditions:

i)

When the HFL at the bridge is very high and

there is spill beyond the normal flow channel.
ii)
When the stream meets a main river just
downstream of the bridge.
iii) In the case of bridges with insufficient water way.
iv)
The wave action on the approach bank of bridges
situated in a lake/large tank bed may have a
detrimental effect.
) In all the above cases the pitching of the approach
bank upto HFL with sufficient free board is an
effective solution. Provision of toe wall and narrow
apron in some cases will also be useful.

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2.

If deep borrow pits are dug near the toe of

approach banks, the water flows through
these pits and forms a gradually deepening
water course which may eventually threaten
the safety of the approach bank. In this case it
will be useful to put rubble "T" spurs across
the flow to reduce the velocity and expedite
silting of the course.

3.

Whenever the water level on either side of an

approach bank is different, there may be
seepage of water and to ease the hydraulic
gradient , widening of banks, provision of sub
banks and toe filters etc. may be resorted to.

4.

At locations with standing water against the

embankment, special watch should be kept
when the water level recedes rapidly and
when slips are likely to occur.

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Riprap

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Soil-cement riprap

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Landslide Stabilization
Structures

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Landslide: refers to the downward sliding of huge

quantities of land mass

which occur along steep slopes of

mountains and may be sudden or slow.

hills

or

Classification of Earth Movements

All movement of land masses are referred as landslides, but
differ in many respects, therefore all types of landslides are
categorized as Earth Movements.
These are classified as

Earth Flow

Landslides

Solifluction

Debris slide or
slump

Creep

Rock slides

Rapid flows

Subsidence
Plastic flow

collapse
Rock falls

Landslides
If a mass of earth moves along a definite plane or
surface the failure is termed as Landslide.
Large block known as a slump block moves during
the landslide.
The scar above a landslide is easily visible.
They can occur along a slope where the internal
resistance of the rocks are reduced or they loose
their holding capacity.
Common after earthquakes or after removal of part
of the slope due to construction, particularly for
construction of roads.
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 During the movement landslide

can result into the

Debris Slides or Slump are failure of unconsolidated

material on a surface; Rock
Slides or Rock Falls
where movement of large rock
block rolls
They are also common along the
steep banks of rivers, lakes etc.
Pore Water Pressure is the key to
monitoring
landslides.
Shear
strength
(a
resisting
force)
decreases and the weight (a
driving force increases).

 Talus accumulation formed

by the coarser rock fragments
resulted from the mechanical
weathering along a slope
under influence of gravity

Causes of Landslides
1) Landslide Triggers
(i) Cloud burst (200-1000mm/day)

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(ii)

Uncontrolled flow of water on slope surface

from over flooded steep gullies.

(iii)

Toe
cutting
may
activate
failure
by
overtopping of rock blocks or slides in
colluvium.

(iv)

Earthquake

(v)

Blasting

(vi)

Flash flood due to glacial lake outbursts

110

2) Causes
A)

Man Made Causes

(i)

Deforestation

(ii)

Blasting quarrying

(iii) Hill cutting

(iv) Irrigation of paddy fields, water storage ponds
(v)

Undermining, tunnelling

(vi) Vehicle vibration in hill roads

B) Erosion Process
(i)

Blocking of natural drainage

(ii)

High flow velocities in steep gullies

C)

Pore water pressure

D)

Geological conditions
(i) Minral composition, rock type, structure etc.
(Shrestha B.D, 2000)

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Causes of Landslides
Internal Causes
Influence of slope - Provides favourable condition for landslides;
steeper slope are prone to slippage of land. It is known that most of
the materials are stable upto certain angle- Critical angle or
angle of repose it varies from 30 0 for unconsolidated sediments
to 900 for massive rocks and 60 0-900 for partially jointed rocks.
Ground water or associated water- Main factor responsible for
slippage. Suppose the hard or massive rocks are underlained by
softer rocks (shale or clay bed)
When rain water percolates through some fractures or joints the
clayey beds becomes very plastic and acts as slippery base, which
enhance the chances of loose overburden to slip downward.
Water is the most powerful solvent, which not only causes
decomposition of minerals but also leaches out the soluble matter
of the rock and reduces the strength.

 Lithology- rock which are rich in clay (montmorillonite,

bentonite), mica, calcite, gypsum etc are prone to landslide
because these minerals are prone to weathering.
Geological structures- Occurrence of inclined bedding planes,
joints, fault or shear zone are the planes of weakness, which
create conditions of instability.
Human Influence- undercutting along the hill slopes for laying
roads or rail tracks can result into instability.
Deforestation in the uplands, result into more erosion during
the rainy season.

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External Factors
Most common is the vibration resulted due to earthquakes;
blasting to explosives; volcanic eruption etc.
Earthquakes often initiate mass failures on large scale eg. 1897
Assam quake produced gigantic landslide ever recorded in the
region.

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Preventive Measures
The main factors which contribute to landslides are
Slope, water content, geological structure,
unconsolidated or loose sediments, lithology
and human interference.
Slope: Retaining wall may be constructed against
the slopes, which can prevents rolling down of
material. Terracing of the slope is an effective
measure.
Effect of Water: Make proper drainage network
for quick removal of percolating moisture or rain
water by constructing ditches and water ways
along the slope
Geological structures: Weak planes or zones
may covered or grouted to prevent percolation of

Landslides and Mudflows

Plant ground cover on slopes and build retaining walls.

In mudflow areas, build channels or deflection walls to direct the

flow around buildings.

Install flexible pipe fittings to avoid gas or water leaks.

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Landslide Stabilization Structures

1) Water Management and Stabilization Measures/
Structures
a) French Drain Stone Tributary Drain
b) Masonry Surface Drain
c) Stone Pitching
d) Gabion Tributary Drain
) Management of drainage is important for the control of landslides.
) Drainage management alone has significantly improved the
stability of Medium and Large Landslide-prone Slopes.
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RC Anchored Road, 33 Kilo, Khawa, Kavrepalanchowk

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Soil Bioengineering
Structures for Slope Stabilization
Soil Bioengineering is a useful and effective technology for slope stabilization and soil
conservation.
Soil bioengineering is defined as the use of living plant materials to construct
structures that perform an engineering function.
The technology is now widely used for slope stabilization and soil conservation in
many countries that experience slope instability.
Soil bioengineering structures used for slope stabilization include retaining walls,
check dams and mechanical barriers for fixing loose soil on landslides and fill slopes.
In addition to slope stabilization, soil bioengineering structures are also used to
control gully and river bank erosion.
Gullies commonly occur on landslides and fill slopes if treatment is not given in time
and landslides are also triggered by undercutting from river and channel erosion.

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Retaining Walls
Soil bioengineering retaining walls are effective in stabilizing slips and
small landslides.
Different types of soil bioengineering retaining walls have been used
for stabilizing landslides in different parts of the world.
Among these, the most common soil bioengineering retaining
walls are vegetated soft gabions, live brushwood, geo
textiles and timber crib walls.
In Pakistan the vegetated soft gabion walls and live brushwood
retaining walls were constructed on a large scale in earthquake
affected areas and have proved effective and economical for small
landslides.
The vegetated soft gabion and live brushwood retaining walls are also
combined with gabion, stone masonry and concrete walls to reduced
cost of engineering structures for slope stabilization.
The selection of the type of bioengineering retaining wall for a
particular site depends on the availability of the material required at
the particular site and for the favored construction method.
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Vegetated Soft Gabion Retaining Wall

This retaining structure utilizes empty used bags
of synthetic fiber or jute, generally available in the
market at cheap rates.
The ruble cleared from the toe of the landslide is
used for filling the bags for the construction of
vegetated soft gabion walls.
The filled bags are used as building blocks like
bricks to construct the retaining wall (Figure 1).
The foundation is excavated at the toe of the
landslide by removing the debris.
The first layer of bags is placed length wise across
the length of the retaining wall.
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 A 15cm thick soil layer is placed on the bags and branches of the living woody plants
and rooted seedlings are placed above the soil layer in such a way that their basal
(butt) ends reaches the mother soil of the slope.
The soil is placed on the brushhedge layers and compacted well.
Above the brush layer another layer of bags is placed width wise by giving a step of
2035cm.
The soil from the upslope is scrapped for filling the space behind the bags and
compacted properly.
A second layer of brush layer treatment is given above the bags as explained above.
The process is repeated till the required height of the retaining wall is reached.
After rooting and sprouting, thick vegetation is established at the toe of the landslide
(Photo 1a, 1b and 1c). By the time the synthetic bags rot the vegetation is
established and the slope is stabilized permanently.
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Live Brushwood Retaining Wall

For establishing live brushwood retaining walls, poles of tree species such
as Marmele sp. (Amare fuik), Jatropha sp., Cordia spp. and Ficus spp. are
driven at the toe of a small landslide at 1m spacing across the toe of the
slope. The length of the poles should be 1.5m (minimum). Brushwood
bundles having 15cm diameter from any tree, bush or grass species
available near the site are prepared and placed along the uphill side of the
poles. Coconut or palm leaves along with their stalks are the best suited
material for this purpose. The soil is pushed from the upslope and firmly
packed behind the brushwood bundles or coconut leave stalks. After
attaining 30cm height, brush layering treatment is carried out by using
the brushwood of trees species with high growth. The placed brushwood is
covered with soil which is then compacted. Only 10cm length of the tail
ends of the brushwood is projected out of the brushwood wall. Brushwood
bundles or palm leaves are again placed above brush layer treatment and
the soil is filled as described above. The second layer of brushwood is
placed and the process is repeated till the top of the poles is reached
(Photos 2, 3 and 4). If the pole is less than the required height of the
retaining wall, another live brush retaining wall is established after giving
a step of 1m. The poles and the fresh brushwood used in brush layers
quickly sprout, creating a live vegetation retaining wall. By the

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Vegetated Geotextile Retaining Wall

Geotextile rolls are used for constructing vegetated geotextile retaining
walls. Coconut fiber and jute is also used for weaving the biodegradable
geotextile sheets. After removing the debris from the toe of landslide the
geotextile sheet is spread across a width of 1.5m. The remaining portion
of the sheet is rolled and kept at the outer edge. The soil is pushed down
from the cut slope and placed over the sheet and compacted well. The
depth of the soil over the sheet is kept at 1m and its outer face is given a
batter of 1 (horizontal):8 (vertical). The remaining roll of the sheet is
overlapped on the compacted soil towards the cut slope. It is better to sow
seeds of native grasses on outer face of the soil before covering it with the
sheet. A 20cm thick layer of soil is placed on the sheet and covered with a
1.6m long brushwood layer extending it beyond the overlapped sheet to
ensure adequate rooting takes place. A thin soil layer is placed over the
brush layer and compacted before placing another geogrid sheet with the
same procedure as described above. At each layer a step of 35cm is given
(Figure 3). The brushwood sprouts in the wet season. The roots reinforce
the soil and make it strong to resist the shearing forces working on it. In
TimorLeste vegetated geotextile walls could be constructed with sheets
made from coconut fiber.

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Vegetated Timber Crib Wall

Crib walls should be built from round poles or square timber held
together by nails or bolts.
Crib walls are placed at an angle of no more than 1:8 (horizontal:
vertical) inclining toward the upslope.
Wooden crib walls should not be higher than 3m. For construction of
the wall, the first row of footers is placed in touch with the cut slope
and parallel to it.
The second row is placed at 1.5m distance parallel to the first row.
The length of the footers depends on the available length of the
poles.
The headers are 1.52m long and are placed across the footers at
2m distance.
During the crib wall construction, branches of living plants should be
placed in the open spaces between the poles in such a way that less
than 10cm length protrude from the wall.

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When the fill material is damped into openings between the poles,
large hollow spaces should be avoided to ensure that the branches
are in touch with the soil and will root properly.

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Vegetated Timber Crib Wall

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 One of the hazards of placing a highway near a river or stream

channel is the potential for erosion of the highway embankment by
moving water. If erosion of the highway embankment is to be
prevented, bank protection must be anticipated, and the proper type
and amount of protection must be provided in the right locations.
Four methods of protecting a highway embankment from stream
erosion are available to the highway engineer. These are:
l Relocating the highway away from the stream.
l Moving the stream away from the highway (channel change).
l Changing the direction of the current with training works.
l Protecting the embankment from erosion.
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Gully Control Structures

After heavy rainfall, water will drain away.
If soil conservation methods such as barriers and plant cover
are not used, the rain water may carry soil with it.
Small channels begin.
As these grow, they are known as gullies.

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 Large gullies often develop along the sides of paths and roads.
Small gullies (less than 25cm deep) can usually be controlled by
making contour ditches and ridges.
With large gullies this is not enough.
They must be blocked to stop the erosion.
Gullies that are not blocked will continue to grow deeper, causing
more and more good soil to be washed away during heavy rain.

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Find where the gully begins

This is very important. Stop the erosion where it begins. Walk up
the gully. Find out the source of the water that flows down the
gully during heavy rain. It is very difficult to stop gully erosion
just by blocking gullies. So much water may flow down the gully
during a storm, that all the barriers may be washed away.
make cut-off drains, contour ditches and grass strips and plant
trees to reduce the amount of rainwater that runs into the gully.

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 Sticks can be used to make an effective barrier across a

gully.

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Build Strong Barriers

Build barriers in the dry season. Use local materials sticks, branches and rocks.
(Very large gullies need wire, cement and special designs, and you will need
expert help.)
Build strong barriers every 45 metres. If using sticks, make two rows of strong
sticks about 1/2 metre apart in the gully sides and floor. Bang them in at an
angle, sloping towards the top of the gully. Put branches or stones between the
two rows, pushing them down very firmly.
Make the centre of the barrier lower than the sides of the gully. Water will then
flow over the barrier during a very heavy storm. Otherwise it would flow around
the barrier, weakening it.
Put large, flat stones below the barrier. If water does flow over the barrier, the
stones will stop any erosion inside the gully.
Plant grasses such as vetiver behind the barrier and on the gully sides. Soil will
slowly collect behind the barriers. Over several years, the gully will fill up with soil
again. Dont let new gullies begin! Control soil erosion everywhere on your land.

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Check Dams & Gully Plugs

Gully Plugs, also called check dams, are mainly built to prevent
erosion and to settle sediments and pollutants.
Depending on the topography, amount of precipitation, material
and financial resources available, there are several methods to
construct agully plug. They have to be inspected regularly and
any damages must be repaired.
Gully Erosionis a major problem in EastAfricaand has to be
rehabilitated which is related with high costs.

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 Acheck dam(also called gully plug) is a small, temporary or

permanent dam constructed across a drainage ditch, swale, or
channel to lower the speed of concentrated flows for a certain
design range of storm events. Acheck damcan be built from
wood logs, stone, pea gravel-filled sandbags or bricks and
cement (RUFFINO 2009). Reducedrunoffspeed reduces erosion
andgully erosionin the channel and allows sediments and other
pollutants to settle out. Check dams are inexpensive and easy to
install. They may be permanent if designed properly and can be
used where it is not possible to otherwise divert flow and stabilise
the channel
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Loose Stone Check Dams

loose stone dam (check damorgully plug) should stop the

gully erosion.

Loose stone check dams made of relatively small rocks are

placed across thegully. The main objectives for these dams are to
control channel erosion along thegullybed and to stop waterfall
erosion by stabilisinggullyheads. Loose stone check dams are
used to stabilise the incipient and small gullies and the branch
gullies of a continuousgullyorgullynetwork. The length of the
gullychannel is not more than 100 metres and thegully
catchment areais two hectares or less. These dams can be used
in all regions.
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 severalcheck dammethods are introduced (FAO1986)

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 Brush fills
Brush fill is a continuous filling of small gullies with brush, branches of trees, stems of
bushy vegetation, etc. This method is also called brush plug and is especially economical
where brush is plentiful.
Earth plugs
Earth plugs, which are small structures, are constructed across the gullies. Their main
purpose is to hold water and let it percolate into the ground (see also
surface groundwater recharge). In non-humid regions, small gullies which are not deeper
than 2 metres, with agullybed gradient of less than 10 per cent, can bestabilisedby a
series of earth plugs. In humid regions, earth plugs must be combined with small
diversions. Distribution of earth plugs depends on thegullychannel's gradient.
Woven-wire check dams
Woven-wire check dams are small barriers which are usually constructed to hold fine
material in thegully. They are used in gullies with moderate slopes (not more than 10 per
cent) and small drainage areas that do not have flood flows which carry rocks and
boulders.
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Brushwood Check Dams

Brushwood check dams made of posts and brush
are placed across thegully. The main objective of
brushwood check dams is to hold fine material
carried by flowing water in thegully. Smallgully
heads, no deeper than one metre, can also be
stabilisedby brushwood check dams. Brushwood
check dams are temporary structures and should
not be used to treat ongoing problems such as
concentratedrun-offfrom roads or cultivated
fields. They can be employed in connection with
land use changes such asreforestationor
improved range management until vegetative and
slope treatment measures become effective.
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Log Check Dams

made of logs and posts are placed across thegully. They can also
be built of planks, heavy boards, slabs, poles or old railroad ties.
The main objectives of log check dams are to hold fine and coarse
material carried by flowing water in thegully, and to stabilisegully
heads. They are used to stabilise incipient, small and branch
gullies generally not longer than 100 metre and with
catchment areasof less than two hectares. The maximum height of
the dam is 1.5 metres from the ground level. Both its downstream
and upstream face inclination is 25 per cent backwards. Its spillway
form is rectangular. In general, the length and depth of its spillway
are one to two metres and 0.5 to 0.6 metres.
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Miscellaneous Erosion Control Measures

Vegetation on Slopes of Embankment

Dry Stone Pitching
Gabion Crates Filled Pitching
Stone Masonry Retaining Wall
Concrete Block Lining
Retaining Wall with Gabion Crates
Bank Protection Spurs and Check Dams

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