RF Networks

There are two aspects of networking which must be considered

when installing either an NCL or LMS product:
1. Ethernet Networking (IP)
2. Radio Networking (RF)

This presentation will focus on the RF side of the NCL and

LMS products.

RF Terminology
Wavelength is the distance between identical points in the
adjacent cycles of a waveform. In wireless systems, this
length is usually specified in meters, centimeters, or
millimeters

The size of the wavelength varies depending on the frequency

of the signal. Generally speaking, the higher the frequency
the smaller the wavelength.
The WaveRider family of products operate in the 2.4000 2.4835 GHz range (NCL and LMS2000) as well as the 905 925 MHz range (LMS3000).
At 2.4 GHz the wavelength is 12.5cm
At 905 MHz the wavelength is 33cm

These values are calculated using the following formula:

Wavelength = 3 x 102
f (frequency in MHz)
This calculation is important to remember, especially when
installing antennas. Ideally, the antenna should be installed no
closer than 10 wavelengths to the nearest reflective surface.

Frequency
Frequency is the number of complete cycles per second in
alternating current direction. The standard unit of frequency is
the hertz, abbreviated Hz. If a current completes one cycle per
second, then the frequency is 1 Hz.

Kilohertz (kHz)
Megahertz (MHz)
Gigahertz (GHz)
Terahertz (THz)

Frequency Spectrum

Designation
Very Low Frequency
Low Frequency
Medium Frequency
High Frequency
Very High Frequency
Ultra High Frequency
Super High Frequency
Extremely High Frequency

Abbreviation
VLF
LF
MF
HF
VHF
UHF
SHF
EHF

Frequencies
9 kHz - 30 kHz
30 kHz - 300 kHz
300 kHz - 3 MHz
3 MHz - 30 MHz
30 MHz - 300 MHz
300 MHz - 3 GHz
3 GHz - 30 GHz
30 GHz - 300 GHz

Free-space Wavelengths
33 km - 10 km
10 km - 1 km
1 km - 100 m
100 m - 10 m
10 m - 1 m
1 m - 100 mm
100 mm - 10 mm
10 mm - 1 mm

Spectrum
800

850

900

DAMPS

869

GSM/NMT

890

EGSM

915

870

TACS

960

894
935

915

925

890 905

ETACS

872

905

960
935 950

917

950

PDC
AMPS

940 958
824

849

869

iDEN 806 821

851 866

ESMR 806 824

851 869

894

896901

UP-SMR

PAGING

ISM

930931

940 941

929 932

ISM

PCS

940 945
901902

NPCS

1700
PCN/DCS 1710

960

902 928

1800
1785 1805

1900

2000

2500

1880
1850

1910 1930

1990
2400-2483.5

Tx Power
Tx is short for Transmit
All radios have a certain level or Tx power that the radio
generates at the RF interface. This power is calculated as the
amount of energy given across a defined bandwidth and is
usually measured in one of two units:
1. dBm a relative power level
referencing 1 milliwatt
2. W a linear power level
referencing Watts

dBm = 10 x log[Power in Watts / 0.001W]

W = 0.001 x 10[Power in dBm / 10 dBm]

The NCL and LMS radios have Tx power of +18dBm, which

translates into .064 W or 64 mW.

Rx Sensitivity
Rx is short for Receive
All radios also have a certain point of no return, where if they
receive a signal less than the stated Rx Sensitivity, the radio
will not be able to see the data.
This is also stated in dBm or W.
The NCL and LMS radios have a receive sensitivity of 82 dBm.
At this level, a Bit Error Rate (BER) of 10-5 (99.999%) is seen.
The actual level received at the radio will vary depending on
many factors.

Radiated Power
In a wireless system, antennas are used to convert electrical
waves into electromagnetic waves. The amount of energy the
antenna can boost the sent and received signal by is referred to
as the antennas Gain.
Antenna gain is measured in:

1. dBi: relative to an isotropic radiator

2. dBd: relative to a dipole radiator
0 dBd = 2.15 dBi

There are certain guidelines set by the FCC that must be met in
terms of the amount of energy radiated out of an antenna. This
energy is measured in one of two ways:
1. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
measured in dBm = power at antenna input [dBm] +
relative antenna gain [dBi]
2. Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
measured in dBm = power at antenna input [dBm] +
relative antenna gain [dBd]

Energy Losses
In all wireless communication systems there are several factors
that contribute to the loss of signal strength. Cabling,
connectors, lightning arrestors can all impact the performance of
your system if not installed properly.
In a low power system (such as the NCL and LMS products)
every dB you can save is important!! Remember the 3 dB
Rule.
For every 3 dB gain/loss you will either double your power
(gain) or lose half your power (loss).

-3 dB = 1/2 power
-6 dB = 1/4 power
+3 dB = 2x power
+6 dB = 4x power
Sources of loss in a wireless system: free space,
cables, connectors, jumpers, obstructions

FCC Guidelines
The ISM Bands are defined as follows:
902 to 928 MHz
2400 to 2483.5 MHz
5725 to 5850 MHz
FCC Part 15, Class B
Unlicensed operation from 2400 to 2483.5 MHz
P2P - EIRP
: +36 dBm (4 Watts)
: 3:1 i.e. +24 dBm into 24 dBi
P2MP - EIRP
: +36 dBm (4 Watts)
: 3:1 at subscriber (considered P2P)

FCC - Installer
System must be installed by a Professional Installer as defined in
FCC Document 15.247 Part 15;
Complete understanding of FCC emissions regulations for
unlicensed operation in the 2.4 GHz ISM Band.
Installer must have a full understanding of the impact of various
types of antennae, amplifiers and other active and passive
components on the compliance of the equipment under FCC
regulations.

FCC - Installation
An external Power Amp cannot be used in conjunction with WR
radio components, in order to comply with FCC regulatory
emissions requirements. Use of an external PA device with a
WaveRider system is deemed illegal and may result in
significant penalty to the manufacturer, seller, and customer.
Unique connectors provide means of compliance.
Standard connectors require professional installation to ensure
compliance.

WaveRider High Speed

Wireless Systems
The NCL and LMS systems are designed to support terrestrial fixed
links in an outdoor environment. Typical distances achieved while
staying within FCC guidelines are:
Point to Multipoint: up to 8km
Point to Point: up to 15km
These distances may vary depending on the installation, antennae
chosen, cabling, etc.

NCL1155 Spec Sheet

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Also known as Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DSCDMA), DSSS is one of two approaches to spread spectrum
modulation for digital signal transmission over the air.
The stream of information to be transmitted is divided into small
pieces, each of which is allocated to a frequency channel across the
spectrum.
When transmitted, the data is combined with a higher data-rate bit
sequence (also known as a chipping code) that divides the data
according to a spreading ratio.

The transmitter and the receiver must be synchronized with the

same spreading code.
The chipping code helps the signal resist interference and also
enables the original data to be recovered if data bits are damaged
during transmission.

22 MHz wide

Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum
Also known as Frequency Hopping Code Division Multiple Access
(FH-CDMA), FHSS radios transmit "hops" between available
frequencies according to a specified algorithm which can be either
random or preplanned.
The transmitter operates in synchronization with a receiver, which
remains tuned to the same center frequency as the transmitter.

FHSS an example

f5
f4
f3
f2
f1
1

7
TIME

10

11

12

Hopset
Each
channel
1MHz wide

Signal Propagation
As the signal leaves the antenna it propagates, or disperses, into
space. The antenna selection will determine how much
propagation will occur.
At 2.4 GHz it is extremely important to ensure a that a path (or
tunnel) between the two antennas is clear of any obstructions.
Should the propagating signal encounter any obstructions in the
path, signal degradation will occur.
Trees, buildings, hydro poles, and towers are common
examples of path obstructions.

The greatest amount of loss in your wireless system will be from

Free Space Propagation. The Free Space Loss is predictable
and given by the formula:
FSL(dB) = 32.45 + 20Log10F(MHz) + 20Log10D(km)
The Free Space Loss at 1km using a 2.4 GHz system is:
FSL(dB) = 32.45 + 20Log10(2400) + 20Log10(1)
= 32.45 + 67.6 + 0
= 100.05 dB

Line of Sight
Attaining good Line of Sight (LOS) between the sending and
receiving antenna is essential in both Point to Point and Point to
Multipoint installations.
Generally there are two types of LOS that are used discussed
during installations:
1. Optical LOS - is related to the ability to see one
site from the other
2. Radio LOS related to the ability of the receiver
to see the transmitted signal

To quantify Radio Line of Sight, the Fresnel Zone theory is

applied. Think of the Fresnel Zone as a football shaped tunnel
between the two sites which provides a path for the RF signals.

At WaveRider acceptable Radio Line of Sight means that at

least 60% of the first Fresnel Zone plus 3 meters is clear of any
obstructions.

Fresnel Zones

3rd*

2nd*

1st*

* Fresnel Zones

The First Fresnel Zone

Radius of n th
Fresnel Zone given
by:

rn

Site A

n d d

1 2

d d
1

d1
Site B

Fresnel Zone diameter depends upon

Wavelength, and Distances from the sites
along axis
For minimum Diffraction Loss, clearance of
at least 0.6F1+ 3m is required

d2

When obstructions intrude on the first Fresnel Zone many issues

can arise which will affect the performance of the system. The
main issues are:
1. Reflection
incident wave propagates away from smooth scattering
plane
multipath fading is when secondary waves arrive out-ofphase with the incident wave causing signal degradation

2. Refraction
incident wave propagates through scattering plane but at an
angle
frequencies less than 10 GHz are not affected by heavy
rains, snow, pea-soup fog
at 2.4 GHz, attenuation is 0.01 dB/Km for 150mm/hr of
rain
3. Diffraction
incident wave passes around obstruction into shadow
regions

The Path Profile

Path Profile characteristics may

change over time, due to vegetation,
building construction, etc.

FiveNines V1.2

Antenna - How it Works

The antenna converts radio frequency electrical energy fed to it (via
the transmission line) to an electromagnetic wave propagated into
space.
The physical size of the radiating element is proportional to the
wavelength. The higher the frequency, the smaller the antenna size.
Assuming that the operating frequency in both cases is the same,
the antenna will perform identically in Transmit or Receive mode

The type of system you are installing will help determine the
type of antenna used. Generally speaking, there are two
types of antennae:
1. Directional
- this type of antenna has a narrow beamwidth; with the
power being more directional, greater distances are usually
achieved but area coverage is sacrificed
- Yagi, Panel, Sector and Parabolic antennae
- an EUM, NCL Station/Master will use this type of
antenna in both Point to Point and Point to Multipoint

2. Omni-Directional
- this type of antenna has a wide beamwidth and radiates
3600; with the power being more spread out, shorter
distances are achieved but greater coverage attained
- Omni antenna
- a CCU or an NCL Master will use this type of antenna

Yagi
- better suited for shorter links
- lower dBi gain; usually between 7 and 15 dBi

Typical Radiation Pattern for a Yagi

Parabolic
- used in medium to long links
- gains of 18 to 28 dBi
- most common

Typical Radiation Pattern for a Parabolic

Sectoral
- directional in nature, but can be adjusted anywhere from 450 to
1800
- typical gains vary from 10 to 19 dBi

270 0

-3

-6

-15
-20

-15
-20

-30

-30

-10

dB

180

90 270 0

-3

-6

-10

dB

180

Typical Radiation Pattern for a Sector

90

Omni
- used at the CCU or Master NCL for wide coverage
- typical gains of 3 to 10 dBi

Typical Radiation Pattern for an Omni

Antenna Radiation Patterns

Common parameters
main lobe (boresight)
half-power beamwidth (HPBW)
front-back ratio (F/B)
pattern nulls
Typically measured in two planes:
Vector electric field referred to E-field
Vector magnetic field referred to H-field

Polarization
An antennas polarization is relative to the E-field of antenna.
If the E-field is horizontal, than the antenna is Horizontally
Polarized.
If the E-field is vertical, than the antenna is Vertically Polarized.
No matter what polarity you choose, all antennas in the same RF
network must be polarized identically regardless of the antenna
type.

Polarization may deliberately be used to:

Increase isolation from unwanted signal sources (Cross
Polarization Discrimination (x-pol) typically 25 dB)
Reduce interference
Help define a specific coverage area

Horizontal

Vertical

Antenna Impedance
A proper Impedance Match is essential for maximum power
transfer. The antenna must also function as a matching load for
the Transmitter ( 50 ohms).
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), is an indicator of how
well an antenna matches the transmission line that feeds it.
It is the ratio of the forward voltage to the reflected voltage. The
better the match, the Lower the VSWR. A value of 1.5:1 over the
frequency band of interest is a practical maximum limit.

Return Loss is related to VSWR, and is a measure of the

signal power reflected by the antenna relative to the forward
power delivered to the antenna.
The higher the value (usually expressed in dB), the better. A
figure of 13.9dB is equivalent to a VSWR of 1.5:1. A Return
Loss of 20dB is considered quite good, and is equivalent to a
VSWR of 1.2:1.

VSWR

Return Loss

Transmission Loss

1.0:1

0.0 dB

1.2:1

20.83 dB

0.036 dB

1.5:1

13.98 dB

0.177 dB

5.5:1

3.19 dB

2.834 dB

Distance-to-fault
CHER-B-A04
M1: -3.728 dB @ 50.698 Feet
-10

Retu rn Loss (dB)

-20

-30

-40

-50

M1

Resolution: 259
BiasTee: OFF
Date: 06/27/2000
Model: S332B

10

15

20

25

30
35
Distance (0.0 - 60.0 Feet)
CAL: ON(COAX)
Output Power: -30.00 dBm
Time: 12:03:59
Serial #: 00004096

40

45

50

55

60

CW On

Environmental Effects
Ice and wind loading, Salt spray
Radomes used to improve performance in icy, windy
conditions (more common with larger solid parabolic
dishes). Wind loading can be reduced substantially by
using a radome.
Wind loading can produce vibration, which in turn can
produce azimuth errors. For longer paths, this can be
critical.
Installation - pay close attention to proper sealing of all
connector junctions.

The Transmission Line

The type of cable selected depends mostly on the length of that
cable required. Generally, the longer the cable run the better
the cable must be in terms of attenuation.
Attenuation refers to the degradation of the signal as it travels
through the cable. This is usually stated as a loss in dB per 100
feet.

Times
Microwave
LMR types

Andrew
Corporation
Heliax

Attenuation Table
Cable Type Attenuation at 2.4 GHz
per 100 feet
RG8
10
LMR400
6.8
Heliax 3/8"
5.36
LMR600
5.4
Heliax 1/2"
3.74
Heliax 5/8"
2.15

Transmission Line Selection

Physical Characteristics:
Bend radius
Diameter - transition considerations (interface jumper
cable use)
Environmental considerations
Plenum installation (fire retardant)
Special weather-resistant types
UV resistance very important in tropics

Line Loss or Attenuation paramount refer to your Link Budget

Calculations to determine how much loss is acceptable and still
have a viable link.
Foam dielectric, Air Dielectric, Pressurized types of Coaxial
Cable. Waveguide use also possible but typically not costeffective

Connectors
Your connector selection will be determined based on the
following:
- connector gender at antenna
- type of cable being used
- use of lightning protection
- gender of jumpers being used

For the most part the cabling manufacturers also manufacture

the connectors that go on the cables. Knock off connectors
are available, but dont always fit the cable the way the
manufacturers connectors do.
Generally the only decision that needs to be made is what
gender of connector to installMale or Female
Antennas usually Female
Lightning Arrestors usually Female

Connectors

N-male

RP-SMA- male

N-female

RP-SMA-female

The Lightning Arrestor

To avoid the potential for damage during a lightning strike, the
use of lightning is highly recommended.
For maximum protection, ground must be connected close to
point of entry into building - within 2ft.
Typically structural steel OK for ground connection
Do not use Gas Lines or
Water pipes.
Typical
Lightning
Arrestor

Check Electrical Code for

grounding restrictions.

Network Feasibility Assessment

Through WaveRiders Professional Services Group (PSG), a
Network Feasibility Assessment can be done to establish the
viability of a proposed wireless network with either the NCL or
LMS products.
- System and Program Planning
- Implementation Management
- Application engineering
- Network engineering
- Backhaul Design

- Electrical Inspection
Certified electrician, equipment grounding
- Primary Power Sources
- Site Lease / Costs
Antenna
Floor space

Link Budget Calculations

To establish the viability of a link prior to installing any
equipment, a Link Budget Calculation needs to be made.
Performing this calculation will give you an idea as to how much
room for path loss you have, and give you an idea as to link
quality.
Using the WaveRider Link Path Analysis Tool (LPA Tool), the
Fade Margin and other link criteria can be mathematically
calculated to determine link quality.

Fade Margin
Defined as the difference between the Receive Signal
Level RSL, and the Rx Threshold or other chosen
reference Level.
For path lengths of 16km or less, a minimum 10dB
Fade Margin is recommended

Ie. If you have an RSL of 60dB and a Rx Threshold of 72dB,

than your fade Margin would be 12dB

Antenna Gain

Antenna Gain

(dBi)

(dBi)

B
Path Loss (dB)
Field Factor (dB)

Connector
Connector

Losses
(dB)

Cable Losses

Cable Losses

(dB)

(dB)

Tx Output (dBm)

Tx Output (dBm)
Received Signal Level

(dBm) = Tx Output (dBm) - Path

Loss(dB) - Field Factor (dB) + Total Antenna Gains (dB) - Total

Cable Losses (dB) - Total Connector Losses (dB)

Losses
(dB)

Customer
Elevation (ft)
Latitude
Longitude
Azimuth
Antenna Type
HAAT (ft)
Antenna Gain (dBi)
Tx Line Type
Tx Line Length (ft)
Tx Line Loss (dB/100 ft)
Tx Line Loss (dB)
Connector Loss (dB)
Amplifier Type
Amplifier Tx Gain (dB)
Frequency (MHz)
Path Length (mi)
Free Space Loss (dB)
Diffraction Loss (dB)
Net Path Loss (dB)
Radio Type Model
Tx Power (mW)
Tx Power (dBm)
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (dBm)
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (W)
Amplifier Rx Effective Gain (dB)
Rx Sensitivity for max. Throughput (dBm)
Rx Signal Level (dBm)
Fade Margin (dB)

CAP1

Subscriber1

TA-2404-2

TA-2436
50.00
14.50

LMR600

40.00
24.00
LMR600

70.00
4.42
3.09
1.50
HA-2401E-100/10

60.00
4.42
2.65
1.50
HA-2401E-100/10

0.00
2450.00
4.00
116.36
0.00
116.36
CCU2000

0.00

116.36
EUM2000

31.62
15.00
24.91
0.31
10.00
-72.00
-61.60
10.40

31.62
15.00
34.85
3.05
10.00
-72.00
-61.60
10.40

Product:

LPA

NCL1135-A

Site1

EIRP=

35.5

dBm
Distance=

Km

Antenna Gain Para 24 dBi

2
Pwr @ Ant

2
Pwr @ Ant

LMR-600

Cable Length
Feed Loss
Amp Gain

Antenna Gain Para 24 dBi

11.5 dBm

Cable Type

Path Loss =

118.2

dB

Frequency =

2450

MHz

Cable Length

14 m
1
3.5 dB

Feed Loss

No Amplifier

16
10

Notes

11.5 dBm

Cable Type LMR-600

14 m
63
3.5 dB

When using amp check notes.

Output Power
15 dBm
Rx Power
-62 dBm
Fade Margin
10 dB

Site2

EIRP = 35.5 dBm

8

Amp Gain No Amplifier

3
10

MUST HAVE LOS

Min. Antenna Height

14

Min. Antenna Height

14

When using amp check notes.

Output Power
15 dBm
Rx Power
-62 dBm
Fade Margin
10 dB

FRESNEL ZONE CLEARANCE - USE Calc - General for Obstruction

Unit Converter

This tool is intended as a guideline only.

It is the user's responsibilty to ensure the link design meets the
local regulatory agency guidelines.

Enter distance in miles

18

Enter length in feet

75

Enter distance in kilometers

20

Enter length in meters

21

29.0 km
22.86 m
12.4 miles
68.90 feet

Interference Countermeasures
1. Short Paths
2. Narrow Beam Antennas (high gain)
3. Frequency Selection
4. Antenna Polarization
5. Antenna Azimuth
6. Equipment/Antenna Location