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In Engineering Metallurgy
METALS
These may include metals and alloys.
Ex- Aluminum , Nickel , Copper , Iron , etc, or their
alloys.
These are pretty much regularly arranged
compared to others.
Basic Properties
Good conductors of heat and electricity.
Relatively stiff and strong yet ductile.
A fresh polished surface has lustrous appearance.
Capable to take large deformations and not transparent.
Ceramics
These are compounds between metals and non
metals.
Mostly oxides , nitrides , carbides. Ex- Al2O3, Sic ,
etc.
Clay materials , Cement as well as Glass come
under Ceramics.
Basic Properties.
Act as good Insulators generally.
Stiff and Strong, comparable to metals in
strength.
Resistant to high temperature and harsh
conditions.
They lack ductility and susceptible to fracture.
Polymers
These are essentially organic compounds with
Carbon as their back
bone
Ex- Polyethylene , nylon , polystyrene , etc .
Lighter compared to other materials.
Most of household items an kitchen ware are
made of polymers.
Basic Properties
Extremely ductile and pliable i.e., plastic.
Inert to chemical changes during the usage.
These get soften even in the modest
temperatures.
Insulative properties and non magnetic.
Composites
These are combination of metals , polymers and
ceramics .
Most of them are synthetic.
Ex Glass Fiber.
Generally these are strong , stiff and brittle.
Used in aerospace applications and modern sports
equipment
Density of Materials.
Elastic Modulus
Tensile Strength
Resistance to Fracture
Electrical Conductivities
Advanced Materials
Semi Conductors
Super Conductors
Smart Materials
Bio Materials
NanoEngineered Materials
Stress-strain Relationship
Stressis aphysical quantitythat expresses the internalforcesthat
neighboringparticlesof acontinuous material exert on each other.
Strain,describes relative deformation or change in shape and size
ofelastic,plastic, and fluid materials under applied forces.
Engineering stress and strain (also sometimes called nominal
stress and strain) are calculated based on the original dimensions of
the material in question.
True stress and strain are calculated based on the actual
dimensions of the material.
Elastic Deformation
Stress-strain Behavior:
The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on
the magnitude of an imposed stress. For most metals that are
stressed in tension and at relatively low levels, stress and strain
are proportional to each other through the relationship of
Hookes law, and constant of proportionality(E) is the modulus
of elasticity.
Anelasticity
In most Engineering materials, there will
also exist a time dependent elastic strain
component. That is, elastic deformation
will continue after the stress application,
and upon load release some finite time is
required for complete recovery. The time
dependent elastic behaviour is known as
Anelasticity.
Plastic deformation
For most metallic materials, elastic
deformation persists only to strains of
about 0.005. As the material is
deformed beyond this point, the stress
is no longer proportional to strain and
permanent, non recoverable, or
plastic deformation occurs.
Tensile Strength
The tensile strength TS (MPa or psi)
is the stress at the maximum on the
engineering stressstrain curve
(Figure 6.11). This corresponds to the
maximum stress that can be
sustained by a structure in tension; if
this stress is applied and maintained,
fracture will result.
However, at this maximum stress, a
small constriction or neck begins to
form at some point, and all
subsequent deformation is confined at
this neck, as indicated by the
schematic specimen insets in Figure
6.11. This phenomenon is termed
necking, and fracture ultimately
occurs at the neck. The fracture
strength corresponds to the stress at
Ductility
It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation
that has been sustained at fracture.
A material that experiences very little or no plastic
deformation upon fracture is termed brittle
Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either
percent elongation or percent reduction in area.
The percent elongation %EL is the percentage of
plastic strain at fracture.
Where lf is the fracture length and lo is the
original gauge length.
Percent reduction in area %RA is defined as
where Ao is the original cross-sectional area and
Af is the cross-sectional area at the point of
fracture.
Brittle materials are approximately considered to be
those having a fracture strain of less than about 5%.
Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb
energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading, to have this energy recovered
The associated property is the modulus of
resilience, Ur ,which is the strain energy per unit
volume required to stress a material from an
unloaded state up to the point of yielding.
Toughness
it is a measure of the ability of a
material to absorb energy up to
fracture
Fracture toughness is a property
indicative of a materials resistance to
fracture when a crack is present.
For the static (low strain rate)
situation, toughness may be
ascertained from the results of a
tensile stressstrain test. It is the area
under the curve up to the point of
fracture. The units for toughness are
the same as for resilience (i.e., energy
per unit volume of material)
For a material to be tough, it must
display both strength and ductility;
often, ductile materials are tougher
HARDNESS
It is a measure of a materials resistance to
localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent
or a scratch).
Rockwell Hardness Tests
Brinell Hardness Tests
Knoop and Vickers Microindentation
Hardness Tests
(refer callister for the above hardness tests)
Correlation Between Hardness and Tensile
Strength
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Crystalline Material
Unit Cell
Basic structural
unit of the crystal
structure.
It defines the
crystal structure
by virtue of its
geometry, and
atom positions
within.
Repeated entities of unit cells defines the
crystal structure
Lattice System
A unit cell of lattice system is determined by the following
lattice parameters :
A, b, c Axial Lengths
, , Interaxial Angles
Lattice Centering
It denotes the position of additional atoms other than the
corner ones in the unit cell.
They are of 4 types:
Primitive (P): lattice points on the cell corners only.
Body (I): one additional lattice point at the center of the cell.
Face (F): one additional lattice point at the center of each of
the faces of the cell.
Base (A, B or C): one additional lattice point at the center of
each of one pair of the cell faces.
Bravais Lattices
It is an infinite array of
discrete points
generated by a set of
discrete translation.
In 1850, Auguste
Bravais showed that
there are 14 possible
Bravais Lattices in 3-D
Space.
The 14 Bravais lattices
in 3 dimensions are
obtained by coupling
one of the 7lattice
systems with one of
the lattice centerings
Table
Type
Coordinatio
n Number
Packing
Efficiency
Effective
Number of
atoms
Example
Simple Cubic 6
0.52
Polonium
FCC
12
0.74
Gold
BCC
0.68
Lithium
HCP
12
0.74
Magnesium
Miller Indices
Directions
Planes
Introduction
Miller indices -
A shorthand
notation to describe certain
crystallographic directions and planes
in a material. Denoted by [ ], <>, ( )
brackets. A negative number is
represented by a bar over the number.
Crystallographic Points
The crystallographic points are
represented as pa,qb and rc
where a,b and c are crystal
parameters. The entities p q r is
termed as the Miller index for the
point.
Miller Indices for the points are
not separated by any comma or
punctutation marks.
They are not enclosed in any
square brackets or parenthesis.
Crystallographic Directions
Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass through origin.
Read off projections in terms of unit cell dimensions a, b, and c.
Adjust to smallest integer values.
Enclose in square brackets, no commas.
[uvw] is the required miller index of that direction.
For several crystal systems, different directions have same arrangement of
atoms and hence these direction vectors are grouped under a Family of
directions.
Example- 1,0,1/2 => 2,0,1 => [201]
Family of Directions,e.g. ,<100> consist a family in case of cubic crystal
system constituting of directions-[100], [001], [010] and the negative
counterparts.
Crystallographic Directions
Crystallographic Planes
If the plane passes through origin, either:
Construct another plane, or
Create a new origin
Then, for each axis, decide whether plane intersects or parallels the
axis.
Crystallographic Planes
For some crystal systems, different planes have
same arrangement of atoms, these planes are
grouped under a Family of planes and are
represented by {hkl}.
eg- {100}= (010), (001), (100) and negative
counterparts
Miller indices in Silicon
Dislocations and
Imperfections in Solids
Point
Defect
s
Crystalline
Defects
Line
Defect
s
Surfac
e
Defect
Volum
s
e
Defect
D. Electronic impurity
1. Edge Dislocation
2. Screw Dislocation
a. Grain boundaries
b. Twin boundaries
c. Tilt boundaries
d. Stacking fault
Non Crystalline regions of
dimensions at least 10 to
30A
Point Defects:
Vacancies are empty spaces
where an atom should be, but
is missing.
They are common, especially
at high temperatures.
A self interstitial atom is an
extra atom that has crowded
its way into an interstitial void
in the crystal structure.
Self interstitial atoms occur
only in low concentrations in
metals.
Compostional Defects:
A substitutional impurity
atom is an atom of a different
type than the bulk atoms,
which has replaced one of the
bulk atoms in the lattice.
Interstitial impurity atoms
are much smaller than the
atoms in the bulk matrix.
Interstitial impurity atoms fit
into the open space between
the bulk atoms of the lattice
structure.
Line Defects :
Dislocations: They are discrepancies in mechanical strength and are
explained by linear crystalline defect.
Dislocations are of two types:
1. Edge Dislocations
2. Screw Dislocations
Plastic Deformation in solids occur due to propagation of large number of
dislocations (both edge and screw).
The process of plastic deformation by dislocations is called slip.
Types of Dislocations:
Edge Dislocations: The inter-atomic bonds
are significantly distorted only in the
immediate vicinity of the dislocation line.
In the process of slipping one plane at a time
the dislocation propagates across the crystal.
The movement of the dislocation across the
plane eventually causes the top half of the
crystal to move with respect to the bottom half.
Types of Dislocations:
Screw Dislocations: The motion of a screw
dislocation is also a result of shear stress, but the
defect line movement is perpendicular to direction
of the stress and the atom displacement, rather
than
parallel.
Only a portion of
the bonds are broke at any
given time. The screw
dislocation will move
upward in the image,
which is perpendicular to
direction of the stress.
Slip Systems :
Slip Plane is the plane where in
dislocations are favourable. The
direction in which the dislocation
occurs is called the Slip
Direction.
Slip planes in crystal lattice is the
plane which has maximum
number of atoms present in it
and slip direction is the direction
in which the maximum atoms are
present.
Slip direction is also the direction
of the Burgers vector.
Properties of Dislocations:
When metals deform, part of the energy (around
5%) in the process is used as lattice strain and
majority of remaining energy is given out as heat.
Two edge dislocations of the same sign and lying
on the same slip plane exert a repulsive force on
each other while Edge dislocations of opposite
sign and lying on the same slip plane exert an
attractive force on each other.
Source of new dislocations is
existing dislocations, grain
boundaries and internal defects
and surface irregularities.
2x
m sin
x
2x
m
a
b
b
G
m G
2a 2
(Since b
a)
Strengthening of materials:
Macroscopic deformation corresponds to large number of
dislocations and the ability of a metal to plastically deform depends
on the ability of dislocations to move.
Hence by restricting dislocations in materials would result in
higher stress for plastic deformation and thus increase the strength
of material.
The methods of strengthening include:
1. Grain Size reduction
2. Solid Solution strengthening
3. Strain Hardening
Strain Hardening:
Process in which a ductile
metal becomes harder on
plastic deformation. Since it
occurs in cold temperature,
its also called 'cold working'.
It occurs due to dislocationdislocation field interaction.
Dislocation density increases
with deformation since more
dislocations are formed. this
distance between two
dislocations increase, causing
increased repulsion and
hence hindering the
propagation of dislocation.