UNIT II

POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES:

Types Processing Thermo sensing matrix composites Hand layup and

sprayup techniques filament winding, pultruion, resin transfer moulding,
auctoclave moulding thermoplastic matrix composites Injection
moulding, film stacking diaphragm forming thermoplastic tape laying.
Glass

fibre/polymer

Applications.

interface.

Mechanical

properties

Fracture.

Classification based on Matrices

Composite
materials

Matrices

Polymer Matrix
Composites
(PMC)
Thermoset

Thermoplast
ic

Metal Matrix
Composites
MMC)
Rubber

Ceramic Matrix
Composites
(CMC)

What is a polymer?
Poly
many

mer
repeat unit

A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating

structural units typically connected by covalent chemical bonds

Examples of polymers:
repeat
unit

repeat
unit

H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H H H H H H

H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H Cl H Cl H Cl

Polyethylene (PE)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

repeat
unit

H
C
H

H H
C C
CH3 H

H H
C C
CH3 H

Polypropylene (PP)

H
C
CH3

Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) is the material consisting of a

polymer (resin) matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing dispersed
phase.
Polymer Matrix Composites are very popular due to their low cost
and simple fabrication methods.

Polymer(Matrix)
Composite (Matrix + Reinforcement)
Discontinuous phase - Reinforcement
Continuous phase
- Matrix
Reinforcements
Principal load bearing member.
Matrix
provides a medium for binding and holding the reinforcements
together into a solid.
protects the reinforcement from environmental degradation.
serves to transfer load from one insert (fibre, flake or particles) to
the other.
Provides finish, colour, texture, durability and other functional
properties.

Classification of Polymers
Linear polymer - Any polymer in which molecules are in
the form of chains.
Thermoplastic polymers - Linear or branched polymers in
which chains of molecules are not interconnected to one
another.
Thermosetting polymers - Polymers that are heavily
cross-linked to produce a strong three dimensional
network structure.
Elastomers - These are polymers (thermoplastics or
lightly cross-linked thermosets) that have an elastic
deformation > 200%.

Molecular chain
configurations:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Linear
Branched
Crossed linked
Ladder

Thermosetting resins are the most widely used polymers in PMCs.

Epoxy and polyester are commonly mixed with fiber reinforcement.
The most widely used form is a laminar structure, made by stacking and
bonding thin layers of fiber and polymer until the desired thickness is
obtained.

Fibers in PMCs

Various forms: discontinuous (chopped), continuous or woven as a

fabric
Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass, carbon, and Kevlar 49.
Less common fibers include boron, SiC, Al2O3 and steel.
Glass (in particular Eglass) is the most common fiber material in
today's FRPs; its use to reinforce plastics dates from around 1920.

Polymerisation:
This is the process of joining monomers into gaint chain like molecules.
Methods of Polymerisation:
Condensation polymerisation
Addition polymerisation

Degree of polymerization = No of monomer units in a chain

103 to 105

Thermosets
Thermoset materials are usually liquid or malleable prior to curing,
and designed to be molded into their final form.
Has the property of undergoing a chemical reaction by the action
of heat, catalyst, ultraviolet light, etc., to become a relatively
insoluble and infusible substance.

They develop a well-bonded three-dimensional structure upon

curing. Once hardened or cross-linked, they will decompose
rather than melt.

Thermoset materials are generally stronger than thermoplastic

materials due to this 3-D network of bonds, and are also better
suited to high-temperature applications up to the decomposition
temperature of the material.

 Thermosets are made by mixing two components (a resin and a

hardener) which react and harden, either at room temperature or on
heating.

The resulting polymer is usually heavily cross-linked, so thermosets

are also called as network polymers.

The cross-links form during the polymerisation of the liquid resin and
hardener, so the structure is almost always amorphous.

On reheating the crosslinks prevent true melting or viscous flow so

the polymer cannot be hot-worked. Further heating just causes it to
decompose.

Thermosets

Extensive cross-linking formed by covalent

bonds.
Bonds prevent chains moving relative to
each other.

Types of Thermosetting plastics

Epoxy:
Epoxy is a polymer that contain an epoxide group in its chemical structure.
Example: DGEBA (Diglcidyl Ether of Bisphenol A )

Charecteristics of Epoxy:
Better Moisture Resistence
Low shrinkage
Good adhersion with Reinforcement

Polyester:
A condensation reaction between a glycol and an unsaturated dibasic
acid results in polyster. This contains a double bond C=C between its
carbon atoms.
Example: poly ethylene terephthalate (PET).
Charecteristics of Polyester:
Cheap
Resistance to variety of chemicals
Adequate moisture resistance

Thermosetting plastics - applications

Thermoplastics
In thermoplastic polymer, individual molecules are linear in structure with
no chemical linking between them.

They are held in place by weak secondary bond (intermolecular force),

such as van der Walls bonds and hydrogen.

Some thermoplastics normally do not crystallize, they are termed

as"amorphous" plastics and are useful at temperatures below the Tg.

Generally, amorphous thermoplastics are less chemically resistant.

Thermoplastics (80%)

No cross links between chains.

Weak attractive forces between chains broken by
warming.
Change shape - can be remoulded.
Weak forces reform in new shape when cold.

Reasons for the use of thermoplastic matrix composites

Refrigeration is not necessary with a thermoplastic matrix.

Parts can be made and joined by heating.

Parts can be remolded, and any scrap can be recycled.

Thermoplastics have better toughness and impact resistance than

thermosets.

Shorter fabrication time.

Can be recycled.

Types of Thermoplastics

COMPARISON OF THE THREE POLYMER CATEGORIES

Functions of Matrix

Holds the fibres together.

Protects the fibres from environment.

Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected
to the same amount of strain.

Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.

Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.

Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing

alternate failure path along the interface between the fibres and the matrix.

Carry inter-laminar shear.

Desired Properties of a Matrix

Reduced moisture absorption.
Low shrinkage.
Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles
completely and eliminates voids during the compacting/curing process.
Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.

Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongationshould be

greater than fibre).

Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).

Low temperature capability (depending on application).

Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).

Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.

Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).

Limitations of PMC

Low maximum working temperature.

High coefficient of thermal expansion- dimensional instability

Sensitivity to radiation and moisture.

Processing temperature are generally higher than those with

thermosets.

Polymer Processing
Forming Processes for Thermosetting matrix composites:

Hand layup and sprayup techniques.

Filament winding.
Pultrusion.
Resin transfer moulding.
Autoclave moulding.

Forming Processes for Thermoplastic matrix composites:

Injection moulding.
Film stacking.
Diaphragm forming.
Thermoplastic tape laying.

Hand Layup

Hand layup process:

Gel coat is applied to open
mold.

Fiberglass reinforcement is
placed in the mold.

Base resin mixed

with catalysts is
applied by pouring and
brushing.
Layup is made by building
layer upon layer to obtain
the desired thickness.

Hand Layup

The most popular type of Open Molding is Hand Layup

process. The Hand Layup is a manual, slow, labor
consuming method, which involves the following
operations:
The mold is coated by a release anti-adhesive agent,
preventing sticking the molded part to the mold surface.
The prime surface layer of the part is formed by applying
gel coating.
A layer of fine fiber reinforcing tissue is applied.
Layers of the liquid matrix resin and reinforcing fibers in
form of woven fabric, rovings or chopped strands are
applied. The resin mixture may be applied by either
brush or roll.
The part is cured (usually at room temperature).
The part is removed from the mold surface.
The disadvantages of the Hand Layup method are: low
concentration of reinforcing phase (up to 30%) and low
densification of the composites (entrapped air bubbles).

Hand Layup
Advantages:

Widely used.
Low tooling cost.
Custom shape.
Larger and complex items can
be produced.

Potential Problems:

Labour intensive.
Low-volume process.
Styrene emission.
Quality control is entirely
dependent on the skill of
labourers.

Hand layup products:

Hand layup products:

SPRAYUP
In Sprayup process liquid resin matrix and chopped reinforcing fibers are
sprayed by two separate sprays onto the mold surface.
The fibers are chopped into fibers of 1-2 (25-50 mm) length and then
sprayed by an air jet simultaneously with a resin spray at a
predetermined ratio between the reinforcing and matrix phase.
The Sprayup method permits rapid formation of uniform composite
coating, however the mechanical properties of the material are moderate
since the method is unable to use continuous reinforcing fibers.

SPRAYUP
A spray gun supplying resin in two converging streams into which roving
is chopped.
Automation with robots results in high rate of production.
Labor costs are lower.

Sprayup process:
In Sprayup process, chopped
fibers and resins are
sprayed simultaneously
into or onto the mold.
Applications are lightly loaded
structural panels, e.g.
caravan bodies, truck
fairings, bathtubs, small
boats, etc

Hand and Spray Layup

In both the cases the deposited layers are densified with rollers.

Catalysts and Accelerators are used.

* Catalyst - substance added to the gel coat or resin to initiate the
curing process.
* Accelerator - A compound added to speed up the action of a
catalyst in a resin mix.

Curing at room temperature or at a moderately high temperature in

an oven.

Advantages of Hand Layup and Sprayup

Tooling cost is low.

Semiskilled workers are easily trained.

Design Flexibility.

Molded-in inserts and structural changes are possible.

Sandwich constructions are possible.

Large and Complex items can be produced.

Minimum equipment investment is necessary.

The startup lead time and the cost are minimal.

Disadvantages of Hand Layup and Sprayup

Labor Intensive.

Low volume process.

Longer curing times.

Production uniformity is difficult.

Waste factor is high.

PREPREG

Prepreg is the composite

industrys term for continuous
fiber reinforcement .Preimpregnated with a polymer
resin that is only partially
cured.

Prepreg is delivered in tape

form to the manufacturer who
then molds and fully cures the
product without having to add
any resin.

This is the composite form

most widely used for structural
applications.

PREPREG PROCESS
Manufacturing begins by
collimating a series of
spool-wound continuous
fiber tows.
Tows are then
sandwiched and pressed
between sheets of release
and carrier paper using
heated rollers
(calendering).
The release paper sheet
has been coated with a
thin film of heated resin
solution to provide for its
thorough impregnation of
the fibers.
The final prepreg product is a thin tape consisting of continuous and aligned fibers
embedded in a partially cured resin.

PREPREG

Prepared for packaging by winding onto a cardboard core.

Typical tape thicknesses range between 0.08 and 0.25 mm

Tape widths range between 25 and 1525 mm.

Resin content lies between about 35 and 45 vol%

PREPREG

The prepreg is stored at 0C (32 F) or lower because matrix undergoes

curing reactions at room temperature. Also the time in use at room
temperature must be minimized. Life time is about 6 months if properly
handled.

Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized: carbon, glass, and
aramid fibers are the common reinforcements.

Actual fabrication begins with the lay-up. Normally a number of plies are
laid up to provide the desired thickness.

The layup can be by hand or automated.

Easily obtained with epoxies.

Filament Winding
Filament Winding method involves a continuous filament of
reinforcing material wound onto a rotating mandrel in layers at
different layers. If a liquid thermosetting resin is applied on the
filament prior to winding the, process is called Wet Filament
Winding. If the resin is sprayed onto the mandrel with wound
filament, the process is called Dry Filament Winding.
Besides conventional curing of molded parts at room temperature,
Autoclave curing may be used.

44

Filament Winding

Filament Winding Process

For Round or Cylindrical parts
A tape of resin impregnated fibers
is wrapped over a rotating mandrel
to form a part.
These windings can be helical or
hooped.
There are also processes that use
dry fibres with resin application
later, or prepregs are used.
Parts vary in size from 1" to 20
Winding direction
Hoop/helical layers
Layers of different material
High strengths are possible due to
winding designs in various direction
Winding speeds are typically 100
m/min and typical winding tensions
are 0.1 to 0.5 kg.
45

Filament Winding

Demolding
To remove the mandrel, the ends of the parts are cut off when appropriate, or a collapsible
mandrel (e.g., low melt temperature alloys ) is used.
Curing in done in an Autoclave for thermoset resins (polyester, epoxy, phenolic, silicone) and
some thermoplastics (PEEK)
Fibers are E-glass, S-glass, carbon fiber and aramids (toughness and lightweight) .
Inflatable mandrels can also be used to produce parts that are designed for high pressure
applications, or parts that need a liner, and they can be easily removed.
Advantages
Good for wide variety of part sizes
Parts can be made with strength in several different directions
Very low scrap rate
Non-cyclindrical parts can be formed after winding
Flexible mandrels can be left in as tank liners
Reinforcement panels, and fittings can be inserted during winding
Due to high hoop stress, parts with high pressure ratings can be made
Disadvantages
Viscosity and pot life of resin must be carefully chosen
NC programming can be difficult
Some shapes can't be made with filament winding
Factors such as filament tension must be controlled

Copyright Joseph Greene 2001

46

Filament Winding

Filament winding - applications

pressure vessels, storage tanks and pipes

rocket motors, launch tubes

Light Anti-armour Weapon (LAW)
Hunting Engineering made a nesting pair in 4 minutes
with ~20 mandrels circulated through the machine
and a continuous curing oven.

drive shafts

Entec the worlds largest five-axis filament winding machine for wind
turbine blades
length 45.7 m, diameter 8.2 m, weight > 36 tonnes.

FILAMENT WINDING CHARACTERISTICS

The cost is about half that of tape laying

Productivity is high (50 kg/h).
Applications include: fabrication of composite pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels. Carbon fiber reinforced rocket motor cases used for
Space Shuttle and other rockets are made this way.

Filament winding

Filament winding - winding patterns

hoop (90) - girth or circumferential

winding
angle is normally just below 90
degrees
each complete rotation of the
mandrel shifts the fibre band to lie
alongside the previous band.
helical
complete fibre coverage without
the band having to lie adjacent to
that previously laid.
polar
domed ends or spherical
components
fibres constrained by bosses on
each pole of the component.
axial (0)
beware: difficult to maintain fibre
tension

Filament winding patterns

hoop

helical:

polar:

 Kevlar component

Filament wound pressure

bottles for gas storage

Pultrusion
Description:
Pultrusion is a process where composite parts are manufactured by
pulling layers of fibres/fabrics, impregnated with resin, through a heated
die, thus forming the desired cross-sectional shape with no part length
limitation.

Pultrusion

Pultrusion is an automated, highly productive process of

fabrication of Polymer Matrix Composites in form of continuous
long products of constant cross-section.
A scheme of the process is presented on the picture:

Pultrusion
Pultrusion process involves the following operations:
Reinforcing fibers are pulled from the creels. Fiber (roving) creels may
be followed by rolled mat or fabric creels. Pulling action is controlled by
the pulling system.
Guide plates collect the fibers into a bundle and direct it to the resin
bath.
Fibers enter the resin bath where they are wetted and impregnated
with liquid resin. Liquid resin contains thermosetting polymer, pigment,
fillers, catalyst and other additives.
The wet fibers exit the bath and enter preformer where the excessive
resin is squeezed out from fibers and the material is shaped.
The preformed fibers pass through the heated die where the final
cross-section dimensions are determined and the resin curing occurs.
The cured product is cut on the desired length by the cut-off saw.

Pultrusion
Pultrusion process is characterized by the following features:
High productivity.
The process parameters are easily controllable.
Low manual labor component.
Precise cross-section dimensions of the products.
Good surface quality of the products.
Homogeneous distribution and high concentration of the reinforcing
fibers in the material is achieved (up to 80% of roving reinforcement, up
to 50% of mixed mat + roving reinforcement).
Pultrusion is used for fabrication of Fiber glass and Carbon fiber
reinforced polymer composites and Kevlar (aramid) fiber reinforced
polymers.

Pultrusion
Manufacturing
Fibers are brought together
over rollers, dipped in resin
and drawn through a heated
die. A continuous cross
section composite part
emerges on the other side.

production of constant cross-section profiles

Pultrusion

Design
Hollow parts can be made using a mandrel that extends out the exit side of

the die.
Variable cross section parts are possible using dies with sliding parts.
Two main types of dies are used, fixed and floating. Fixed dies can
generate large forces to wet fiber. Floating dies require an external power
source to create the hydraulic forces in the resin. Multiple dies are used
when curing is to be done by the heated dies.
63

 Very low scrap. Up to 95% utilization of materials (75% for layup).

Rollers are used to ensure proper resin impregnation of the fiber.
Material forms can also be used at the inlet to the die when materials such
as mats, weaves, or stitched material is used.
For curing, tunnel ovens can be used. After the part is formed and gelled in
the die, it emerges, enters a tunnel oven where curing is completed.
Another method is, the process runs intermittently with sections emerging
from the die, and the pull is stopped, split dies are brought up to the
sections to cure it, they then retract, and the pull continues. (Typical
lengths for curing are 6" to 24")

Materials
Most fibers are used (carbon, glass, aramids) and Resins must be fast curing
because of process speeds. (polyester and epoxy)
Processing
speeds are 0.6 to 1 m/min; thickness are 1 to 76 mm; diameters are 3 mm to 150mm
double clamps, or belts/chains can be used to pull the part through. The best designs
allow for continuous operation for production.
diamond or carbide saws are used to cut sections of the final part. The saw is
designed to track the part as it moves.
these parts have good axial properties.
Advantages
good material usage compared to layup
high throughput and higher resin contents are possible
Disadvantages
part cross section should be uniform.
Fiber and resin might accumulate at the die opening, leading to increased friction
causing jamming, and breakage.
when excess resin is used, part strength will decrease
void can result if the die does not conform well to the fibers being pulled
quick curing systems decrease strength

Copyright Joseph Greene 2001

65

Pultrusion
Advantages:
Minimal kinking of
fibres/fabrics

Potential Problems:
Improper fibre wet-out
Fibre breakage

Rapid processing

Inadequate cure

Low material scrap rate

Die jamming

Good quality control

Complex die design

Pultrusion -characteristics

seek uniform thickness in order to achieve uniform cooling and hence minimise
residual stress.
hollow profiles require a cantilevered mandrel to enter the die from the fibre-feed
end.
continuous constant cross-section profile
normally thermoset (thermoplastic possible)
impregnate with resin
pull through a heated die
resin shrinkage reduces friction in the die
polyester easier to process than epoxy
tension control as in filament winding
post-die, profile air-cooled before gripped
hand-over-hand hydraulic clamps
conveyor belt/caterpillar track systems.
moving cut-off machine ("flying cutter"). The solid laminate will be cut to the
desired length
Inside the metal die, precise temperature control activates the curing of the
thermoset resin.

Shapes such as rods, channels, angle and flat stocks can be easily
produced.

Production rate is 10 to 200 cm/min.

Profiles as wide as 1.25 m with more than 60% fiber volume fraction
can be made routinely.

No bends or tapers allowed (continuous molding cycle)

Pultrusion -applications

panels beams gratings ladders

tool handles - ski poles kites
electrical insulators and enclosures
light poles - hand rails roll-up doors
450 km of cable trays in the Channel Tunnel

Pultrusion Applications

Advanced Composite Construction System

components: plank ............... and connectors

used in Aberfeldy and Bonds Mill Lock bridges

http://

Resin Transfer Molding

In the RTM process, dry (i.e. non-impregnated ) reinforcement is preshaped and oriented into skeleton of the actual part known as the
preform which is inserted into a matched die mold.
The heated mold is closed and the liquid resin is injected
The part is cured in mold.
The mold is opened and part is removed from mold.

Resin Transfer Moulding

Close mold low pressure
process.
A dry preform is placed in a
matched metal die.
A vaccum pulls the Low
viscosity resin through a
flow medium that helps
impregnate the preform.
Resin may also be forced
by means of a pump.

Resin Transfer Moulding

RTM
Transfer Molding (Resin Transfer Molding) is a Closed Mold process in
which a pre-weighed amount of a polymer is preheated in a separate
chamber (transfer pot) and then forced into a preheated mold filled with a
reinforcing fibers, taking a shape of the mold cavity, impregnating the fibers
and performing curing due to heat and pressure applied to the material.
The picture below illustrates the Transfer Molding Process.
The method uses a split mold and a third plate equipped with a plunger
mounted in a hydraulic press.
The method combines features of both Compression Molding - hydraulic
pressing, the same molding materials (thermosets) and Injection Molding
ram (plunger), filling the mold through a sprue.
Transfer Molding cycle time is shorter than Compression Molding cycle but
longer than Injection Molding cycle.
The method is capable to produce very large parts (car body shell), more
complicated than Compression Molding, but not as complicated as Injection
Molding.

RTM
Transfer Molding process involves the following steps:

The mold cavity is filled with preformed reinforcing

fibers.
A pre-weighed amount of a polymer mixed with
additives and fillers (charge) is placed into the transfer
pot.
The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, puttylike masses or pre-formed blanks.
The charge is heated in the pot where the polymer
softens.
The plunger, mounted on the top plate, moves
downwards, pressing on the polymer charge and
forcing it to fill the mold cavity through the sprue and
impregnate the fibers.
The mold, equipped with a heating system, provides
curing (cross-linking) of the polymer (if thermoset is
processed).
The mold is opened and the part is removed from it
by means of the ejector pin.
If thermosetting resin is molded, the mold may be
open in hot state cured thermosets maintain their
shape and dimensions even in hot state.
If thermoplastic is molded, the mold and the molded
part are cooled down before opening.
The scrap left on the pot bottom (cull), in the sprue
and in the channels is removed. Scrap of
thermosetting polymers is not recyclable.

Advantages of RTM

Large complex shapes and curvatures can be made easily.

High level of automation.

Layup is simpler than in manual operations.

Takes less time to produce.

Fiber volume fractions as high as 60% can be achieved.

Styrene emission can be reduced to a minimum.

Cost effective High volume process for large-scale processing.

Disadvantages of RTM

Mold design is complex and requires mold-filling analysis.

Fiber reinforcement may "wash" or move during resin transfer.

Resin Transfer Moulding

Advantages:

Potential Problems:

Low skill labour required

Control of resin flow

Low tooling cost

Kinking of fibres

Low volatile emission

Criticality in mould design

Required design tailorability

RTM Products:

Autoclave moulding
Autoclave Curing is a method in which a part, molded by one of the
open molding methods, is cured by a subsequent application of
vacuum, heat and inert gas pressure.
The molded part is first placed into a plastic bag, from which air is
exhausted by a vacuum pump. This operation removes air inclusions
and volatile products from the molded part.
Then heat and inert gas pressure are applied in the autoclave
causing curing and densification of the material.
Autoclave Curing enables fabrication of consistent homogeneous
materials. The method is relatively expensive and is used for
manufacturing high quality aerospace products.

Autoclave moulding

An autoclave is a closed vessel (round or cylindrical) in which

processes occur under simultaneous application of high
temperature and pressure.

Autoclave
An oven that allows for high pressures to be used.
Composites cure under heat and pressure provides a superior part because
the voids are reduced due to the pressure.
Process
The part is placed in the pressure vessel, and heated, pressure is applied
simultaneously.
Vacuum bagging can be used in an autoclave.
Thermoset composites are crosslinked.
Thermoplastics are melted.
Advantages
The pressure helps bond composite layers, and remove more voids in the
matrix.
Very large parts can be made with high fiber loadings.
Properties are improved.
Many different parts can be cured at the same time.
Disadvantages
Autoclaves are expensive
Copyright Joseph Greene 2001
82

a)

b)

a) Autoclave process to make a laminated composite

b) Prepregs of different orientations stacked to form a laminated composite
Higher fiber volume fractions (60 65%) can be obtained

Autoclave process- Charcteristics

Very high quality product
Generally prepregs are used
Chopped fibres with resin can also be used
Hybrid composites can be produced
High fibre volume fractions can be obtained
simultaneous application of high temperature and pressure helps in,
* Consolidating the laminate.
* Removing the entrapped air.
* Curing the polymeric matrix.

Autoclave Moluding

Injection moulding

Injection Molding is a Closed Mold process in which molten polymer

(commonly thermoplastic) mixed with very short reinforcing fibers
(10-40%) is forced under high pressure into a mold cavity through an
opening (sprue).
Polymer-fiber mixture in form of pellets is fed into an Injection
Molding machine through a hopper. The material is then conveyed
forward by a feeding screw and forced into a split mold, filling its
cavity through a feeding system with sprue gate and runners.
Screw of injection molding machine is called reciprocating screw
since it not only rotates but also moves forward and backward
according to the steps of the molding cycle.
It acts as a ram in the filling step when the molten polymer-fibers
mixture is injected into the mold and then it retracts backward in the
molding step.
Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the
polymer.
The mold is equipped with a cooling system providing controlled
cooling and solidification of the material.

Injection moulding

The polymer is held in the mold until solidification and then the
mold opens and the part is removed from the mold by ejector pins.
Injection Molding is used mainly for thermoplastic matrices, but
thermosetting matrices are also may be extruded. In this case
curing (cross-linking) occurs during heating and melting of the
material in the heated barrel.
A principal scheme of an Injection Molding Machine is shown in the
picture below.
Injection Molding is highly productive method providing high
accuracy and control of shape of the manufactured parts. The
method is profitable in mass production of large number of identical
parts.
One of the disadvantages of the method is limited length of fibers
decreasing their reinforcing effect.

Injection moulding

Injection moulding machine

The injection molding machine comprises of:

The plasticating and injection unit: The major tasks of the

plasticating unit are to melt the polymer, to accumulate the melt in
the screw chamber, to inject the melt into the cavity and to maintain
the holding pressure during cooling.

The clamping unit: Its role is to open and close the mold, and hold
the mold tightly to avoid flash during the filling and holding.
Clamping can be mechanical or hydraulic.

The mold cavity: The mold is the central point in an injection

molding machine. Each mold can contain multiple cavities. It
distributes polymer melt into and throughout the cavities, shapes
the part, cools the melt and ejects the finished product.

The Injection Mold

The mold consists
Sprue and runner
system
Gate

Mold cavity

Cooling system

(for thermoplastics)
Ejector system

Features of injection molding

Direct path from molding compound to finished product

Process can be fully automated
High productivity & quality

Injection molding machine

Injection Molding Machine

INJECTION MOLDING

Thermoplastics : Polystyrene,PE, PP, ABC, PC,PMMA etc

Injection Molding Cycle

Injection molding involves two basic steps:
Melt generation by a rotating screw
Forward movement of the screw to fill the mold with melt and to
maintain the injected melt under high pressure
Injection molding is a cyclic process:

Injection: The polymer is injected into the mold cavity.

Hold on time: Once the cavity is filled, a holding pressure is maintained to

compensate for material shrinkage.

Cooling: The molding cools and solidifies.

Screw-back: At the same time, the screw retracts and turns, feeding the
next shot in towards the front

Injection molding is the most important process used to manufacture plastic

products. It is ideally suited to manufacture mass produced parts of
complex shapes requiring precise dimensions.

It is used for numerous products, ranging from boat hulls and lawn chairs,
to bottle cups. Car parts, TV and computer housings are injection molded.

Thermosets : Unsaturated polyester resin, Phenol formaldehyde etc

Reaction injection moulding

Reaction

injection

moulding
reactive

(RIM)

Two

ingredients

are

pumped at high speeds

and

pressures

into

mixing head and injected

into a mold cavity where
curing
occur

and
due

reaction.

solidification
to

chemical

Reinforced reaction injection molding

Reinforced reaction injection moulding (RRIM) - similar to RIM but
includes reinforcing fibers, typically glass fibers, in the mixture .

Advantages: similar to RIM (e.g., no heat energy required, lower

cost mold), with the added benefit of fiber reinforcement.

Products: auto body, truck cab applications for bumpers, fenders,

and other body parts

Film stacking

Stack of laminate consists of fibers, impregnated with insufficient

thermoplastic matrix, and polymer films of complementary weight to
give the desired fiber volume fraction in the end product. These are
then consolidated by simultaneous application of heat and pressure.

Generally, a pressure of 6-12 MPa, a temperature between 275 and

350 C, and dwell times of up to 30 mins are appropriate for
thermoplastics such as polysulfones and polyetheretherketone
(PEEK).

DIAPHRAGM FORMING

This process involves the sandwiching of freely floating thermoplastic

prepreg layers between two diaphragms .

The air between the diaphragms is evacuated and thermoplastic laminate is

heated above the melting point of the matrix.

DIAPHRAGM FORMING

Pressure is applied to one side, which deforms the diaphragm and makes
them take the shape of the mold.

The laminate layers are freely floating and very flexible above the melting
point of the matrix, thus they readily conform to the mold shape.

DIAPHRAGM FORMING

After the completion of the forming process, the mold is cooled, the
diaphragms are stripped off, and the composite is obtained.
The diaphragms are the key to the forming process, and their
stiffness is a very critical parameter.

For very complex shapes requiring high molding pressures, stiff

diaphragm are needed. At high pressures, a significant transverse
squeezing flow can result, and this can produce undesirable
thickness variations in the final composite.

DIAPHRAGM FORMING
ADVANTAGES:

Components with double curvatures can be formed.

Compliant diaphragm do the job for simple components.

Thermoplastic tape laying

(Automated Layup)

In this method layers of prepreg (reinforcing phase impregnated by

liquid resin) tape are applied on the mold surface by a tape
application robot.

Cost is about half of hand lay-up.

used for thermoset or thermoplastic matrix.

limited to flat or low curvature surfaces.

Extensively used for products such as airframe components, bodies

of boats, truck ,tanks, swimming pools and ducts.

Automated tapelaying machine (photo courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron).

Automated tapelaying machines operate by dispensing a prepreg tape onto an

open mold following a programmed path .
Typical machine consists of overhead gantry to which the dispensing head is
attached
The gantry permits xyz travel of the head, for positioning and following a defined
continuous path.

Interfacial bonding
Good bonding (adhesion) between matrix phase and dispersed
phase provides transfer of load, applied to the material to the
dispersed phase via the interface. Adhesion is necessary for
achieving high level of mechanical properties of the composite.
There are three forms of interface between the two phases:
Direct bonding with no intermediate layer. In this case adhesion
(wetting) is provided by either covalent bonding or van der
Waals force.
Intermediate layer (inter-phase) is in form of solid solution of the
matrix and dispersed phases constituents.
Intermediate layer is in form of a third bonding phase (adhesive).

The Interface
There is always an interface between constituent phases in a composite
material.
For the composite to operate effectively, the phases must bond where they join
at the interface.

Reinforcement-Matrix Interface
The load acting on the matrix has to be transferred to the reinforcement
via. Interface.
The reinforcement must be strongly bonded to the matrix if high
stiffness and strength are desired in the composite materials
A weak interface results in low stiffness and strength but high resistance
to fracture.
A strong interface produces high stiffness and strength but often low
resistance to fracture, i.e. brittle behavior
2 types of failure at interface
1) Adhesive failure - failure occur at interface
2) Cohesive failure failure occur close to the interface (either at the fiber or
matrix)

Interfacial bonding
Once the matrix has wet the reinforcement, bonding will occur.
For a given system, more than one bonding mechanism may exist at
the same time.
The bondings may change during various production stages or
during services.

Types of interfacial bonding at interface

Mechanical bonding
Physical bonding
Chemical bonding

Mechanical Bonding
It is a simple mechanical keying or
interlocking effect between the
fiber-matrix phases.
When the matrix shrinks radially on
cooling over the reinforcement
leads to a griping action of the
matrix on the fiber.

Physical Bonding

These kind of bonding involves weak secondary or vander waals

forces, dipolar interactions and hydrogen bonds.
These type of bonding mechanism is of low significance because of its
low magnitude.
The bond energy lies in the range of 8-16 kJ/mol.

Chemical bonding
Dissolution Bonding: This bonding is of short range and occurs at an
electronic scale. This type of bonding is hindered by the presence of
impurities on the fiber surface and also gas or air bubbles at the
interface.
Reaction Bonding: This bonding is due to the transport of the
molecules, atoms or ions which diffuse to the interface.

Interphase

In some cases, a third ingredient must be added to achieve

bonding of primary and secondary phases
Called an interphase, this third ingredient can be thought of as
an adhesive

Another Interphase
Interphase consisting of a solution of primary and
secondary phases

APPLICATIONS OF PMCs

Polymer composites are used to make very light bicycles that are
faster and easier to handle than standard ones, fishing boats that
are resistant to corrosive seawater and lightweight turbine blades
that generate wind power efficiently. New commercial aircraft also
contain more composites than their predecessors. A 555-passenger
plane recently built by Airbus, for example, consists of 25 percent
composite material, while Boeing is designing a new jumbo aircraft
that is planned to be more than half polymer composites.

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) are used for manufacturing:

secondary load-bearing aerospace structures, boat bodies, canoes,
kayaks, automotive parts, radio controlled vehicles, sport goods
(golf clubs, skis, tennis racquets), fishing rods, bullet-proof vests
and other armor parts, brake and clutch linings.