Chapter 4

Heredity and Evolution

Genetic Principles
Discovered by Mendel

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

basic principles of heredity.
Crossed different strains of purebred
plants and studied their progeny.
Studied common garden peas (only one
trait at a time).
His work illustrates the basic rules of
inheritance.

Principle of Segregation

Genes occur in pairs (like chromosomes).

During gamete production, members of each
gene pair separate.
During fertilization, the full number of
chromosomes is restored (allele pairs are
reunited).
Homozygous- same allele at same locus on
both members of a chromosome pair. (i.e.TT, tt)
Heterozygous- two different alleles at the same
locus on a chromosome pair.

Dominance And
Recessiveness

Recessive traits are not expressed in

heterozygotes.
For a recessive allele to be expressed, there
must be two copies of the allele.
Dominant traits are governed by an allele that
can be expressed in the presence of another,
different allele.
Dominant alleles prevent the expression of
recessive alleles in heterozygotes.

Principle of
Independent Assortment

The distribution of one pair of alleles

into gametes does not influence the
distribution of another pair.
The genes controlling different traits
are inherited independently of one
another.

Mendelian Inheritance in
Humans
Mendelian principles apply to over 4,500 human

traits.
The human ABO blood system is an example of
a simple Mendelian inheritance.
The A and B alleles are dominant to the O
allele.
Neither the A or B allele are dominant to one
another (codominant and both traits are
expressed).

ABO Genotypes and

Associated Phenotypes
Genotype

Antigens on
Red Blood
Cells

ABO Blood
Type
(Phenotype)

AA, AO

BB, BO

AB

A and B

AB

OO

None

Polygenic Inheritance

Polygenic traits are continuous traits

governed by alleles at more than one
genetic locus.
Continuous traits show gradations.
Skin color is a common example of a
polygenic trait it is governed by 6 loci and
at least 12 alleles.

Mitochondrial Inheritance

Convert energy into a form that can be

used by the cell.
Animals inherit their mtDNA (and mt
traits) from their mothers.
All the variation in mtDNA is caused by
mutation, which makes it very useful for
studying genetic change over time.

Heredity and Evolution

Evolution works at four levels:

Molecular
Cellular
Individual
Population
The levels reflect different aspects of
evolution and are integrated in a way that
produces evolutionary change.

The Modern Synthesis

Evolution is a two-stage process:
1. The production and redistribution of
variation.
2. Natural selection acting on this variation
(affect ability to reproduce & survive)
Evolution = Mutation or Natural Selection

A Current Definition Of
Evolution

Modern Genetics: evolution= a change in

allele frequency from one generation
to the next.
Allele frequencies are indicators of the
genetic makeup of an interbreeding group
of individuals known as a population.
Small changes + Time + Natural Selection= Evolution

Mutation
Mutation is a molecular alteration in genetic
material:
For a mutation to have evolutionary
significance it must occur in a gamete (sex
cell).
Such mutations will be carried on one of the
individual's chromosomes.
During meiosis the chromosome carrying the
mutation will assort giving a 50% chance of
passing the allele to an offspring.

Gene Flow

Gene flow is the exchange of

genes between populations.
If individuals move
temporarily and mate in the
new population (leaving a
genetic contribution), they
dont necessarily remain in
the population.
Example: The offspring of U.S. soldiers
and Vietnamese women.

Genetic Drift

Genetic drift is directly related to population size.

Genetic drift occurs when some individuals
contribute a disproportionate share of genes to
succeeding generations.
Drift may also occur solely because the
population is small:
Alleles with low frequencies may simply not be
passed on to offspring, so they eventually
disappear from the population.

Founder Effect

Genetic drift in which allele frequencies are

altered in small populations from larger
populations.
A new population will be established.
(all members will be descended from the founders)

An allele that was rare in the founders parent

population but is carried by even one of the
founders can eventually become common.
Example: French Canadians in Quebec

Recombination

In sexually reproducing species both

parents contribute genes to offspring.
The genetic information is reshuffled
every generation.
Recombination doesnt change allele
frequencies, however, it does produce
different combinations of genes that
natural selection may be able to act on.

Natural Selection

Natural selection provides directional change in

allele frequency relative to specific
environmental factors.
If the environment changes, selection pressures
also change.
If there are long-term environmental changes in
a consistent direction, then allele frequencies
should also shift gradually each generation.

Levels of Organization in the

Evolutionary Process
Evolutionary
Factor

Mutation

Mutation

Level

Evolutionary Process

DNA

Storage of genetic
information; ability to
replicate; influences
phenotype by production of
proteins

A vehicle for packaging and

Chromosomes
transmitting DNA

Levels of Organization in the

Evolutionary Process
Evolutionary
Factor

Recombination
(sex cells only)
Natural
selection

Level

Evolutionary Process

Cell

Basic unit of life, contains

chromosomes, divides for
growth and production of sex
cells

The unit that reproduces and

Organism
which we observe for
phenotypic traits

Drift, gene flow Population

Changes in allele
frequencies between
generations

Quick Quiz

1. Mendel used the term dominant for

a) plants that were larger than others of
the same variety.
b) a trait that prevented another trait
from appearing.
c) a variety of pea plants that eliminated
a weaker variety.
d) a trait that "skipped" a generation.

Answer: b

Mendel used the term dominant for a

trait that prevented another trait from
appearing.

2. Genes exist in pairs in individuals; during

the production of gametes, the pairs are
separated so that a gamete has only
one of each kind. This is known as the
a) principle of segregation.
b) principle of independent assortment.
c) mitosis.
d) unification theory.

correct: a

Genes exist in pairs in individuals;

during the production of gametes, the
pairs are separated so that a gamete
has only one of each kind. This is known
as the principle of segregation.

3. Traits that have a range of phenotypic

expressions and show a continuum of
variation are termed
a) co-dominant.
b) polygenic.
c) polymorphic.
d) sex-linked.

Answer: b

Traits that have a range of phenotypic

expressions and show a continuum of
variation are termed polygenic.

4. When alleles are introduced into a

population from another population, this
is known as
a) genetic drift.
b) gene flow/migration.
c) founder effect.
d) bottleneck effect.

Answer: b

When alleles are introduced into a

population from another population, this
is known as gene flow/migration.

5. The most complete definition of biological

evolution is
a) change.
b) mutation.
c) survival of the fittest.
d) a change in allele frequency from one
generation to the next.

Answer: d

The most complete definition of

biological evolution is a change in
allele frequency from one generation
to the next.