iGCSE case studies

A. Hazardous Environments
A. Coastal Environments
B. Urban Environments
B. Economic Activity & Energy
C. Globalisation & Migration
Minimum number of case studies if well learnt = 15
Textbook case studies
Non

A. Hazardous Environments
Two areas of case study requirements
1. A comparative study of the impacts
of tropical storms, in an LIC and an
HIC. Katrina & Nargis
2. Case studies of the management of
one tropical storm and one tectonic
event. One of these should have
happened in an LIC and the other in
an HIC. Katrina & Pinatubo

1. A comparative study of the impacts of TRS, in an LIC & an HIC

Location,
Time, Scale

HIC Katrina 2005

LIC Nargis 2008

24/08/05 = tropical storm over the Bahamas

28/08/05 = Category 5 over Gulf of Mexico
29/08/05 = Cat. 3 hit; Florida, Louisiana, Georgia,
Alabama & Mississippi
Wind speeds max.175mph (282kmh-1)
Storm surge = 7.3 to 8.5m along Mississippi coast
Up to 35 cm rainfall

02/05/08 = Tropical Cyclone hits Myanmar

Wind speeds max.160mph (260 kmh-1)
Tracked W to E along the south coast of
Myanmar = 25% of M. pop.tn
Storm surge = 3.5m
Up to 60cm rainfall

Short-term impacts

Deaths /
Injuries

Buildings &
Infrastructure

1.

@1,836 people died (mainly in Louisiana) + 705

reported missing
2. @ 1.2 million people given evacuation order
3. Most deaths caused by storm surge and aftermath
of Katrina

1. 140,000 died or were missing,

2. 1.5m to 3m people were displaced after
the cyclone.
3. Lack of food 55 % of poptn = one day of
food stocks or less.
4. Flooded @ 14,402 square kilometres2
(5,561 square miles) of the Irrawaddy
River Delta
5. Health - 75% of health facilities in the
affected areas destroyed
6. Diseases
1. malaria & dengue fever spread by
mosquitoes
2. Plague & leptospirosis spread by
rodents.

1. Accommodation
1. @ $81 billion of damage to property
2. 200,000 homes damaged or destroyed
(mostly in New Orleans)
2. Infrastructure
1. @ $150 billion damage to infrastructure
caused
2. 3 million people lost electricity supply
3. winds destroyed smaller buildings, heavily
damaged larger buildings; Infrastructure
mostly damaged or submerged, transport
links inoperable

1. Accommodation
1. 60% of homes in the path of the
storm were destroyed.
2. 800,000 homes destroyed and
350,000 homes damaged.
2. Infrastructure
1. Many villages were cut off for
several weeks as waterways
clogged with debris and roads
were destroyed. (The army
organising the relief was unable to
liaise with impacted people.)

1. A comparative study of the impacts of TRS, in an LIC & an HIC

Longer-term

Social
costs:
Homelessne
ss

1. 40, 000 displaced = 26, 000 homeless temporarily

relocated to Louisiana Superdome ( = unsanitary =
led to spread of disease) + 14, 000 housed in
Astrodome, Texas
2. Thousands of people lost their jobs & forced to move
for employment (environmental internally displaced)

1. 1.5-3 million displaced, mainly within

Rangoon area

Economic &
Environmen
tal costs

1.
2.
3.
4.

1. Total cost of damage = $10 bn,

2. Almost no insurance
3. Difficult for country to recover, will
become medium to long term effect
(ROSTOW!)
1. $4bin (1.7 assets, 2.3 lost income)ASEAN figures
4. Agricultural & Environmental
1. Shallow continental land shelf =
Silt washed ashore ruins some
farmland, but can make the land
fertile
2. Forests destroyed- 38,000ha
3. Green land flooded, @600,000ha,
4. Rice production drops 500,000
tons
5. Farm animals killed = no tilling of
land
6. 50% Boats for fishing destroyed,
income lost

Total cost of damage = $89.6 bn

70% of damaged property was insured
53 levees damaged/destroyed
$105 million spent on repairs to infrastructure and
housing
5. 30 oil platforms destroyed
6. Agricultural & Environmental
1. industrial waste & raw sewage = New Orleans
drains + oil spills from offshore rigs,/coastal
refineries & petrol stations
2. "Witch's Brew" = 7 million gallons of oil + =
could devastate the regions biodiversity for
many years to come = devastating the fisheries
= economic impact
3. Superfund Sites Flooded = five Superfund
sites (heavily polluted industrial sites slated
for federal cleanup) + infamous Cancer Alley
industrial corridor between New Orleans and
Baton Rouge = EPA problem
4. Contaminates Groundwater = Household
hazardous wastes, pesticides, heavy metals
and other toxic chemicals also created a
witchs brew of floodwater that quickly seeped
down into and contaminated groundwater =
long term
5. Forest industry =1.3million acres of forest
lands destroyed
6. Substantial beach erosion =560 km2 of land
transformed to water.
7. lost breeding homes for animals such as
marine mammals, brown pelicans, turtles, and
fish, as well as migratory species such as
redhead ducks. Over 20% of marshes
permanently turned to water. Damage forced

2. The management of one tropical storm and one

tectonic event. One of these should have happened
in an LIC and the other in an HIC.
Pre-event

HIC/TRS Katrina 2005

LIC/Tectonic Pinatubo 1991

Prediction & Responses

25/08/05 = Katrina made
landfall = Cat. 1 in southern
Florida and weakened into a
tropical storm as a result. The
next morning, after passing
over the state, Tropical Storm
Katrina moved into the Gulf of
Mexico, reintensified
26/08/05 = 56 hr before
Katrina's landfall = National
Hurricane Center had
predicted that the Greater
New Orleans area could face a
direct hit = Louisiana
Governor Kathleen Blanco
declares a State of Emergency
in Louisiana
27/08/05 = NHC issued a
hurricane watch that included
the New Orleans metro area,
[
which was upgraded to a
hurricane warning by 10:00
p.m. = Blanco asks President
Bush to declare a State of
Emergency for Louisiana =
Bush does so, authorizing the
Department of Homeland
Security and FEMA "to
coordinate all disaster relief
efforts" and freeing up
federal money for the state.
28/08/05 = NHC bulletin for
the New Orleans region =
warning of the devastation =
people in SE Louisiana & S.
Mississippi, followed

Prediction & Responses

1. Three successive evacuation zones were
defined:
1. <10km of the volcano's summit.
2. 10 to 20km from the summit.
(40,000)
3. 20 to 40km from the summit.
(331,000)
2. Five stages of volcanic alert ;
1. Level1 = low level seismic
disturbances
2. Level5 which is a major eruption in
progress.
3. Daily alerts were issued stating the alert
level and associated danger area.
4. Information was announced in major
national and local newspapers, radio and
television stations
5. Many Aeta = left their villages of their
own volition when the first explosions
began in April. = Aeta gathered in a
village 12km from summit.
6. COSPEC, tiltometers & seismographs
used to predict eruption
7. Evacuations
1. 7/04/91 zone 1
2. 7/06/91 zone 2 alert 4
3. 14//06/91 zone 3 alert 5
BY 15th June eruption, 60,000 had
evacuated from 30km radius

2. The management of one tropical storm and one

tectonic event. One of these should have happened
in an
LIC and the other in an HIC.LIC/Tectonic Pinatubo 1991
HIC/TRS Katrina 2005
Short term
response

1. Local government try and deal with problems then when

its sources are exhausted
2. County level, if county can not cope then the
3. State gets involved and finally the
4. Federal government provide help if needed.
PROBLEM = inadequate planning and back-up communications
systems at various levels.
ACTIONS
5. FEMA had
1. refrigerated trucks with food to worst affected areas
2. volunteers began distributing this food in New
Orleans continued for six months.
6. 60,000 stranded in New Orleans and the Coast guard
rescued more than 33,500.
7. 58,000 National Guard personnel 50 states to help
8. early September congress authorised $62.3 billion in aid for
victims.
9. FEMA provided help with housing to more 700,000 families
and individuals, e.g. trailers.
10. FEMA aid for 12,000 hotel rooms to help with those
displaced until February when evacuees had to claim federal
assistance.
11. July 2006 37,745 people were still living in FEMA trailers.
12. Man power from as far away as New York and California.
13. Two weeks after the storm more than half the states were
providing shelter for evacuees, by four weeks there were
evacuees in all states
14. >70 countries gave money or other donations such as
mobile hospitals, water treatment plants, helicopters,
doctors, water, food, medicine. E.g. Kuwait $500million
,Qatar and United Arab Emirates (each $100million), South
Korea ($30million), Australia ($10million), India, China (both
$5million), New Zealand ($2million) Pakistan ($1.5million)
and Bangladesh ($1million) + India, Israel, Sri Lanka,
Canada, Mexico, Singapore, Germany, Belgium also donated
aid.
15. Britain, Russia and Frances offers were declined.
16. NGOs such as the American Red Cross, Oxfam, along with

1. < 500 people were killed directly from the

volcano, which is very small considering the
size of the blast.
2. + 300 were killed indirectly from things such
as respiratory problems.
3. The main cause of direct death was from
buildings collapsing under the weight of ash
and rain from the typhoon that hit the country
at the same time as the eruption.
4. @ 650,000 people homeless,
5. @ 8,000 homes were totally destroyed with a
further 75,000 more damaged.
6. Clark air force base was damaged to such an
extent the Americans decided not to rebuild it.
7. The people evacuated from their homes were
put in temporary homes such as tents or
cheap basic metal constructions (spontaneous
settlements) and given basic food such as rice.
8. National disaster co-ordinating council of
Philippines sent provisions helped the
homeless.
9. Local indigenous help - Aeta people
10. Country originally refused aid as government
do not want people to think that the volcano
was bigger than it was and the government
could not cope.
11. Some of the drugs NGOs and governments
use are not allowed or licensed in some
countries. It would also have been hard to coordinate all the different groups coming in.
They also wanted to prove that they could
cope with the situation. They also want to
prove they can cope with the situation.
12. Multilateral aid from UN channelled through
the World Health Organisation, UNICEF and UN
world food program to send food. Medicine and
look after children. UNICEF used churches to
help co-ordinate their efforts at grassroots

2. The management of one tropical storm and one

tectonic event. One of these should have happened
in an LIC and the other in an HIC.
Long term
responses

HIC/TRS Katrina 2005

LIC/Tectonic Pinatubo 1991

1. Local governments used cost benefit analysis.

1. To rebuild poorly built homes or leave
them?
2. .To move people into the new more
improved homes which they had built,
or move them out of the area?
2. Before building could begin all the flood water
had to be removed, from New Orleans = 43
days into Lake Pontchartrain. = millions of fish
died (pollution)
3. Adjustment Temporary homes built in affected
areas to get people to move back into the area
before their new homes were built.
4. Populations in badly hit places dropped
1. 2006 Louisianas population had
dropped 4.87%.
5. Trust - get used to the idea that more storms
would happen = trust new levees as old ones
had failed and a government which some
people felt had failed them.
6. Prediction had to be improved. More money
was spent on hurricane prediction +
preparation + equipment
7. More spent on education
8. Improve was communication as it had gone so
badly wrong during the hurricane.

1. The volcano eruption reshaped the land around causing

more risks and disasters.
1. River cut new channels in the ash = erosion of
the land. Due to built up ash, torrential rain from
the typhoon and the flooding from the rivers,
lahars started happening.
2. Lahars then destroyed more homes and
devastated more lives.
3. $500,000 property damage and 650,000 jobs
lost.
2. Four months on from the eruption 200,000 people were
still homeless.
3. Problems for the government.
1. majority of clean drinking water = contaminated
either by ash or the sewers overflowing. =
disease spreading quickly in the areas where the
homeless were grouped.
2. 50% of cattle in the surrounding area were killed
& many crops were ruined meaning a shortage in
food.
3. A lot of people could not afford to pay their taxes
= government had even less money to rebuild
homes meaning people were homeless for even
longer.
4. Aeta tribe = hit the hardest as all their land was
destroyed meaning they had to all be re-distributed.
5. Long term positive recovery aid.
1. The Entrepreneur volunteer assistance (EVA)
taught the Aeta to take the volcanic ash and
make it into pottery to sell to fund education,
healthcare and training programs.
2. Multiplier effect, microfinance used to start up
tourist activities bottom up

A. Coastal Environments
Three areas of case study
requirements
1. Case study of a located coral reef
or a mangrove stand and its
management. SMMA
2. Case study of a stretch of a
coastline under pressure. SMMA
3. Case study of one stretch of
retreating coastline. Holderness

1 . Case study of a located coral reef or a mangrove stand and its management. &
2. Case study of a stretch of a coastline under pressure

Threat

Management

During the 1980s, resource

use conflicts in the area
increased dramatically
local opposition to central
Governments management
activities and zoning
decisions.
Tourism
important part of the local
economy,
And it generates a significant
proportion of GDP.
Due to damage from boats,
anchors and people, the
corals can be destroyed =
Threatening the income
generated by fishing and
tourism from coral reefs.

Department of Fisheries
Soufriere Regional
Development Foundation
(SRDF) a communitybased organisation
Soufriere Marine
Management Area
(SMMA)
demarcation of areas,
the establishment of
the fee systems,
the provision of
technical assistance to
fishers and other
resource users,
the facilitation of
specific negotiations
among stakeholders,
Created in 1994
Covers 11km of coast

Yachting
anchors can destroy the
corals.
Fuel leaks (toxic) & organic
pollution (eutrophication) =
damage ecosystems
Diving
allows tourists to come close
to the reefs in great numbers
risking contact with coral
polyps (fragile)
Fishing
important part of the local
economy and provides
significant employment for
locals.
Over fishing + the threat
from boats and nets have
been a threat to the local
ecosystem and reef

Creation of 5 different
types of zone.
1. Recreational Areasareas along the beach
reserved for tourists.
Good for diving and
water sports.
2. Marine Areas- Access
heavily restricted . All
uses forbidden.
Fishing priority AreasNo diving or Yachting
3. Yacht mooring Areas
Yachts moored here
4. Multiple Use areas
Open to all

Issues:
1997= local fishing community, against the SMMA and to
demand changes in management arrangements as they
felt their livelihoods were in peril
RESULT new representation for all parties in the
Soufriere Marine Management Association,

3. Retreating coastline: Holderness

Background

Holderness Coast is on the NE coast of the UK,

facing the North Sea.
Coastline = soft, easily eroded boulder clay cliffs
(20-30m high),
Including a spit across the Humber estuary - Spurn
Head.
Retreating at greater than 1m / yr (fastest rate in
Europe)
4km of land have been lost since Roman Times,
including many villages and farm buildings.
Easington Gas Station is situated on the cliffs top
and its position is under threat
Destructive waves dominate + mass movement
Most of the Material eroded from the cliffs is
washed out to sea (the coastal cell)
the rest is moved by lsd = the beaches are
therefore narrow = little to protect the coastline.
Further threatened by sea-level rise.

Management

Groynes to trap material and provide a protective beach

Sea walls as wave-resistant structures at the base of the
cliffs
artificial off-shore breakwaters like tyres and concrete
blocks, to dissipate wave energy offshore
sea wall used to protect Easington Gas Station (cost 4.5
million)
Cost/Benefit analysis - only the most valuable areas of
land are protected. Much of the area is farmland which is
not protected.

Example

Mappleton
1998, the main road running through the village was only
500m from the cliff top and in places it is now only 50m
The area suffers from erosion rates of up to 2m per year.
Protecting Mappleton
2 rock groynes were constructed in 1991 at Mappeleton.
Problems for further down coast
South of Mappleton village have experienced
repercussions of altering the beach cell
The groynes disturbed the natural longshore drift

B. Urban Environments
Three areas of case study requirements
1. A case study of one city to show the
land use patterns and the distribution
of social/ethnic groups. Reading
2. A case study of shanty town
management in a LIC city. Sao Paulo
3. A case study of one named urban
area in an HIC to explain how and
why changes are taking place.
Reading rural/urban fringe

1. Land Use: Reading

Land use

Location(s)

Explanation

Residential

1.

Changed over time with the city itself and

the desires of its populace.
During the industrial revolution, factory
workers would have needed to have
easy access to their workplace in the
CBD, hence the terraced housing still
left over from that era.
Manufacturing moved away from CBDs =
derelict modern day regeneration =
High rise flats in CBD,
housing developments on rurban
fringe, Oracle shopping centre etc)
Gentrification in twilight zone and
towards the edge of the city o = people
who have previously moved out of the
city or first time buyers seek cheap
housing in the city that they can
renovate,(reurbanisation) which itself
multiplies the effect.
Infilling on Victorian properties with
spacious gardens, or equipped below
modern standards.
Suburbanisation those able to afford it
moving away from the city centre into
private housing, low in services, high in
residential. e.g. Earley

2.

3.
4.

5.
6.

Industry

CBD = gentrification + attempts to

rejuvenate Reading, high quality, + high
density housing found i.e. Privately
owned/developed modern high rise flats next
to Oracle
Inner city = Terraced housing occurs mainly
nearest the CBD, mixed with other lower
quality council housing (high rise flats) along
main industry roads. (heralding back to when
accessibility was more crucial, and less
accessible itself)e.g. New Town to the East
(Asian community), Oxford Rd = West =
Afro/Caribbean
Some areas of gentrification inside city, with
terraced and semi-detached housing seen
together.
Edges of the urban area, away from areas of
industry, located close to services and
transport links (rail/road) are suburban
clusters e.g. Earley.
New housing developments taking place on
brownfield sites. E.g. Kennet Island n. of
Madjeski, jct. 11
Low quality housing area around Reading uni
for poor students.e.g. White Knights

Located mainly along 3 main roads: Basingstoke

Road e.g. Gillette factory, A323 and A4, leading into
CBD. Services located in CBD (Oracle) and out of
town around suburbs e.g. offices, hi-tech, Courage.

Accessibility industry needed transport links

to ship goods inc. Kennet & Avon canal, and
now requires transport links for out of town, or
suburban commuters, e.g. To the business
parks. Businesses are relocating back to the
CBD as manufacturing (more out of town)
becomes less and less prevalent.

Industrial area, mostly

council flats and
terraced housing e.g.
New Town

Industrial area, mostly

council flats and
terraced housing e.g.
Oxford Rd

New housing
development (in
partnership with
local government to
encourage
rejuvenation of
Reading) e. g.
Tilehurst
Reading follows Hoyts
model of a city, but
with an additional
industrial sector,
rather than one for
higher quality
housing, which is
located around the
city as suburbs.

Reading
university
located near
affordable
housing i.e.
White
Knights

CBD, new
services and
modern high
density flats.
E.g. Oracle

Twilight
Zone,
terraced
housing
e.g.
Oxford
Rd

Industrial
brownfield zone,
majority terraced
housing with
some

Higher quality,
semi-detached
housing moving out
from CBD,
examples of
gentrification and

Privately
developed
suburbs. E.g.
Lower
Earley

1. Ethnic & Social groups: Reading

Map

Ethnic Group

Distribution

White

White population > all other census ethnic categories in

number in Reading.
Highest out to N. (Caversham) & W. (Tilehurst) = most
expensive housing in the suburbs.
Much lower population occupying the cheap inner city
housing around the CBD and in the less expensive
southern and western suburbs (Southcote & Calcot). As
they are generally richer than the others, they can buy the
large, detached properties.

AfroCaribbe
an

Afro-Caribbean = 3rd largest in Reading

Highest in central W. (Battle) = near the Reading West
train station.
Occupy the cheaper, inner city terrace housing W.
nearer to the CBD, declining from the centre.
Low transferable work skills forces them into the
lowest quality housing in these areas.
Very small presence north of the river (Caversham)

1. Ethnic & Social groups: Reading

Map

Ethnic Group

Distribution

Asian

Mixed

Asian = smallest ethnic population in Reading.

Highest = Inner city E. (New Town & Park)
Very low population in the suburbs, especially N.
(Caversham) & W (Tilehurst)
Cheaper housing near to the University (White
Knights) is preferred, coupled with student
accommodation

Mixed race = 2nd largest ethnic group in Reading

Equably spread except N. (Caversham) and W.

(Tilehurst)
Mixed population = southern suburbs (Lower
Earley) = visibly cheaper housing then N.
(Caversham)

2. Shanty Town management: Sao Paulo

Type of
managemen
t

Location & Method

Bottom up schemes = grey area as they are now government policy;

puts their money into favelas through NGOs and government owned companies
Schemes to improve the quality of life of people on a very small, very wide scale.
Gradually improves individual quality of life and standard of living of individuals, over a
wide scale, therefore improving favelas

1. Paraispolis
2005- International Copper Association (ICA) and United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) set up international programme to promote sustainable electricity
services in slum areas, as people risk lives making illegal electricity connections to overhead
lines.
2006- Pilot project initiated in Paraispolis favela

2. Helipolis

Bottom Up

2nd largest favela in Brazil has undergone structuralisation = buildings & roads are permanent +
recognised by the Sao Paulo government.
1986- UNAS (Union of Helipolis Residents Associations and Centre) = a grassroots
movement, created in and led by members of the Helipolis community;

Meetings to negotiate housing rights

Lobbying authorities

Using litigation to affirm and guarantee rights

Public demonstrations

Using buildings to demonstrate against unequal and unjust access and control of
property

Confronting the police

Communication (Community Radio, Bulletins, videos, etc.)

Housing Forum = government & grassroots have meetings to negotiate and build
public policies;

Helipolis Homeless Movement, est. 2000, by 2003 occupied an area owned by the
City Hall with > 700 people.

3. Role of Unilever ( a TNC)

1997- Unilever sets up Rexona-AdeS Volleyball Programme Centres = volleyball as an
educational tool to teach low-income children values, vitality and joy of sport at 45 centres
2004- Unilever:- Omo launches Omo Community Laundry-provides means of washing clothes
to community
2008- Omo launched Brincar improves play areas and educates teachers
Favela Upgrading Bottom-up or Top Down?
Upgrading favelas became the government policy around 1980. It is a bottom up government

2. Shanty Town management: Sao Paulo

Type of
manageme
nt

Location & Method

Assessment

Top Down

Governments = large amounts of money large

scale developments, e.g. Cingapura new high-rise
residential block in a cleared favela in Paraisopolis.
Other top down schemes = new infrastructure and
structuralisation = roads & installing electricity and
permanent buildings.
1992- Paulo Maluf newly elected mayor = a
solution to the favela based on the experience of
Singapore.
The project ran 1995 to early in 2001.
So Paulos planners felt that the Cingapure
(Singapore) model was especially applicable because
of the limited availability and high cost of urban
land in both cities.
Most housing blocks were built next to slum
housing whose residents were to receive priority.
Early buildings were low rise, with higher
buildings preferred as the project advanced.
When built, ownership passed to the municipal
COHAB which collected rents (R$57.00 per
month).
Each new project was assigned a social worker
to oversee the transfer of families from the favela to
temporary settlements to the new housing unit.
Landscaping and leisure areas were included in
the layout of developments.
A criticism has been that no provision was made
for small-scale businesses within the projects.

The Cingapure Project failed due

to:
Inertia = People not wanting to move
away to the newly developed high rise
buildings
Not enough open land at affordable
prices for the low-income residents
who will occupy it.
New land being too far away from
employment areas for favela dwellers
(especially informal employment)
Destruction of social networks in
favelas
Too expensive development costing
15 times more than slum upgrading
Only a modest increase in the
available housing stock (14,000 not
100,000)
Quality of living issues with
housing built- inadequate living space
and rents too high
Legitimisation = adding permanent
infrastructure to favelas is that this
recognises the favelas legality,
making the government seem as if it
condones them.
quality of life in favelas can
cause more rapid urbanisation,
causing even greater problems.

3. HIC urban area change:

Reading

CBD & Inner City

Reading Development- Inner distribution road (IDR)was made to take traffic away
from CBD, never finished and traffic in Reading is still congested. Closed off Broad
street to all and encouraged banks to relocate there.
Friar street- pedestrianised and main entertainment area with new pubs and clubs.
The Oracle- large area of CBD demolished for shopping centre, car park and
Warner cinema. Near river with cafes making area attractive = mix of leisure and
retail
Rose Kiln Flats- example of a Brownfield site that's being redeveloped.

Junction 11 Edge of CIty

Reading Gate- out of town shopping centre built on a Greenfield site next to
the rural-urban fringe, located next to junction 11 of M4. B&Q, Comet,
McDonalds. Next to Madejski stadium for continuous money flow.
Madejski stadium- Reading FC relocated from Elm Park in the inner city to a
Greenfield site on the edge of city. Plus London Irish & Concert venue =
Leisure and tertiary services. Next to Junction 11.
International Business Park- Business park next to Junction 11, close to
M25, M4 plus public transport, has its own integrated transport =
accessibility. Landscaped Car Park, Lake , Crche, Health Club, amenities:
BHS, Hilton, Madejski Millennium and Holiday Inn hence a hence quality of life.
T-mobile, Harley Davidson, Wiley, Oxfam, Orange and Verizon.
Green Park- business/science park based around a water feature (high
qulity of working conditions). Close to Reading University (esp.IT &
Robotics); Creche, Health club, centre for conferences. (under developed as
too much business space in Reading)
Courage Brewery- Built on a green field site, in 1978 and closed April 2010.
there was consolidation in the brewing industry and now fewer but much
larger enterprises are being built.
South side Reading- Reading Gateway development, the urban planners
and architects SCOTT BROWNRIGG = a plan for Reading Borough
Council & local politicians. Extension of residential and business. Links in
with fast track buses. 1000 dwellings with hotel, retail park & leisure
space.
Kennet island- housing development, first properties sold in 2007 and still
being developed, part of the development is covered by a government
backed initiative for Key Workers (public servants such as nurses and
policemen)

B. Economic Activity & Energy

Three areas of case study requirements
1. A comparative study of sectoral shifts
in one HIC and one LIC. India & UK
2. Case study of the factors affecting
the development and location of one
hightech industry. Biotechnology
3. Case study of recent employment
changes within an area of a HIC. M4
Corridor

1. Comparative case study: India v. UK

1800

Primary 85% - agriculture,

mining (coal, iron ore,
limestone etc)

Secondary starts to grow

1900

2nd = age of manuf. Monopoly of

markets and technology

3rd = services supporting trade

e.g. shipping, haulage, finance

1st = mechanisation in manfu. &

agri

2006

2nd = deindustrialisation,
replaced with specialist and
protected manuf e.g. Nissan

3rd = highest added value,

specialisation, new forms of work

1st = exhaustion & competition

UK
employment
structures

1. Comparative case study: India v. UK

1. Tertiary = largest sector
2. Secondary = 2nd stayed
constant
3. Primary = by 50% sector

1. The economy from 1973

(>300%);
2. Sector contributions changed:
1. Primary from 50% to
25%
2. Secondary from <20% to
25% (25x larger)
3. Tertiary grown the most
from 25% to >50%

Conclusion

Majority of people are still employed in agricultural

activities (primary). As agriculture provides
seasonal employment during cropping season so
chances of hidden employment are big.
A developing nations dependency shifts from
primary sector towards tertiary sector in all
aspects of economic development, so it can be said
that India is still way behind because majority still
depend on agriculture.
Secondary & Tertiary Sector have failed to
generate enough employment opportunities
putting a pressure on primary sector.
Although educated and skilled workforces do
get employed in secondary and tertiary sector
but for unskilled and semi-skilled workers there is
still a lack of opportunities, hence informal

1. Primary has
reduced but still
remains the top
employer due to
the amount of
subsistence
farmers.
2. Secondary &
Tertiary sectors
have increased in
size but are still
much smaller than
the primary sector.
3. Tertiary at the
cost of Secondary
mechanisation &
new forms of
employment such
as hi-tech (based
around Bangalore)

2. Development & Location of one

hightech industry: Biotechnology

Biotech = myriad group of hi tech companies inc. subsidiaries;

R & D located near Universities on Science Parks e.g. Cambridge Science Park (Huntingdon Life Sciences =
pharmaceuticals)
Testing often needs to be done in the country of market e.g. for the FDA = USA to gain approval
Manufacture least cost locations with high enough production standards
Marketing can be global or local
Includes Quaternary Teriary Secondary Primary in most cases
Definition the application of molecular and cellular processes to solve problems, conduct research, and
create goods and services; healthcare, food production (e.g. GM), industrial use of crops (e.g. bioethanol production),

2. Development & Location of one

hightech industry: Biotechnology
Traditionally

HQ & R&D in HIC associated with University researchers

50% of global biotech companies based in USA

Post development and testing; manufacture takes place in Least Cost Location
But the global industry is changing, influenced by market, Government Policy and by National specialisms
Country

Role in Global Biotech

China

NEW MARKET

Singapore
MANUFACTURING

India

LOCAL NEW BIOTECH

Brazil
AGRICULTURAL BITECH
SPECIALISM

Malaysia

GOVERNMENT INVESTMENT

An increasingly important market

Large scope to displace Traditional Chinese Medicines
Chinese Government is encouraging the development of a domestic innovative
biotechnology sector = direct investment, intellectual property reforms (protecting the rights of the
companies who develop products) and commercial incentives
A global manufacturing centre
Leading in complex & technology-intensive manufacturing of biotechnology products,
Aided by the countrys strengths in intellectual property protection, regulatory compliance and
infrastructure and its highly skilled workforce.
Attracting investments from the Government and global biotech companies.
Indias biotech industry has as domestic companies have grown aggressively
opportunities from the countrys large, skilled workforce, lower manufacturing &
research costs
demand for health care (market)
Local entrepreneurs with returning, highly educated brain pool
Like many emerging economies, Brazil is progressing from an imitator to an innovator (cf. China)
A leader in agricultural biotech
the worlds second-largest user of genetically modified (GM) crops
Switzerland-based Syngenta received approval to cultivate two varieties of its insect-resistant GM
corn, while Bayer received approval for two varieties of GM soy
Government regulators cleared the experimental planting of 15 new GM seed varieties in 2009. Of
these, 12 corn, cotton and soy varieties are expected to be tested by Monsanto,
biotechnology = a key strategic focus for the nations policy-makers and business community in
recent years.
Government has allocated US$571.4 million = the Ninth Malaysian Plan (200610) to fund the
development of the industry.

3. HIC recent employment changes: M4 Corridor

Area of development for Hi-Tech industry along the M4 Motorway - London to Bristol
Attracts many sunrise, footloose companies; Microsoft, Oracle, Computer Associates,
Cisco, Honda, HP etc
Area adjacent to the M4 motorway & junctions;

eastern end in = a large number of Hi-Tech businesses, particularly in Berkshire and the
Thames Valley.
Europe's premier business location, with many TNCs based there inc. Vodafone @ Newbury as well
as playing host the vast majority of the UK's technology sector.

Locational characteristics
Characteristics of the industries
Links with universities and research organizations. E.g. Oxford,
R & D-intensive industry
Reading, Bristol, Bath
Human resources are an relatively important locational
Office and factory space is cheaper than in London
factor
Easy access to the whole country via the motorway network e.g. M4
A high value-added industry
M25 M3 M1 and ports
A footloose industry
Good rail access along the M4 corridor
Serve the global market
a high quality of life and attractive countryside that helps to recruit
Transnational and multi-point production
History to the
hitech
and retain staff
History tradition
& decline
Heathrow
Airport provides
links to Europe and the rest of the
world manufacture inc. Courage @ Reading 1978, Mars @ Slough
Food

South Wales; chemicals, mining, metal working

first industries to take advantage of the new M4 and the

Reading; biscuits, bricks, bulbs

connectivity it afforded

Bristol; docks related

Other light manufacturing followed e.g. Gillette in Reading

Swindon; GWR railway works

Commuters began to spread along the M4 (and railway line )

Hence an old established industrial region prior to mid Hi tech quaternary companies; CA, HP, Vodafone, Oracle,
20thCentury deindustrialisation
Microsoft
Transport Hubs such as Reading , Swindon (Honda) & Slough act
as clear foci for the corridor

C. Globalisation & Migration

Three areas of case study requirements
1. A case study of the global operations of a
TNC or a TNCs operations in one LIC. Rio
Tinto
2. A case study of a package holiday
destination. Spain
3. A case study of sustainable tourism (eg
Galapagos, Bhutan). Bhutan
4. A case study of international migration
(eg asylum seekers and economic
migrants to UK). UK

1. TNC operations in one LIC: Rio

Tinto
Founded in 1873, Rio Tinto = one of
the Worlds Largest TNCs an AngloAustralian Co.
1st extracted copper now; aluminium,
copper, diamonds, energy products
(coal and uranium), gold, industrial
minerals (borax, titanium dioxide, salt,
talc and zircon), and iron ore.

Criteria

Positive

Employment

100s of local miners lead to a multiplier effect

locally and national taxes

Direct Taxes
(levy)

Namibian government is paid for extraction rights

by RT

Quality of life

RT provides schooling and access to primary

health care for all mine workers

Environmenta
l

Negative
No value added processing is done
in Namibia (France, USA etc)limiting the multiplier effect
Tourism can be affected by the
impact of the mining on the
landscape lasting after the mines
are closed

2ndry disease such as lung cancer

and TB can result from continued
exposure to radon and dust
Excessive water use a semi arid
country water is a scarce resource
Exhausted mines are left unlandscaped as a scar and hazard for
local people after the benefits have
gone.

1. TNC operations in one LIC: Rio

Tinto

The Rossing Mine is the 5th largest

Uranium mine in the world
It is situated partly within the Namib
Nauklut Park
With increased demand for Uranium
there is a top down drive to expand
the mining from the Government and
from Rio Tinto

2. Package tourism: Costa Blanca

LocationCosta Blanca, South of Spain. Near Alicante airport.
Resources for tourismPrimary: Hot dry summers, sea, sand
Secondary: beach resort. High rise hotels.
Benefits500, 000 visitors per year. (av. 30 per day spent) (local population = 70,000)
750, 00 jobs MULTIPIER EFFECT
New infrastructure- Alicante airport,-New road network linking Benidorm with
Valencia Madrid etc.
Recycled water for irrigation = export of citrus fruits. supporting diversified
economy
Lower crime rates (town police station throughout the year)
ProblemsVisual pollution- High rise hotels out of character with local building styles and
materials.
Seasonal low paid jobs, e.g. emptying litter bins.
Congestion- traffic. Impact on local ecosystems
Water- dry summers (1- cm rain per year) tourist consumption = double that of
locals
ManagementLitter 50 million tonnes of waste pa - Impact on local ecosystems
o Height of hotels restricted and materials must blend with the
environment.
Increase in second home ownership hyper seasonality, unreliable threshold
o National Park at the end of peninsula to protect the area.
populations for local services e.g. cafes, shops
o People encouraged to walk to the beach clearing of tunnels
Visitor profileunder coast road
Mainly young people of less than 30 years old.
o Central area pedestrianised.
Stay 10 days- 2 weeks.
o A dam near Castillion with a lake from which water is pumped to
From nearby European countries- UK, France, Germany, Ireland, Scandinavia.
Benidorm.
On package tours.
o Water treatment- recycled water used for irrigation.
o Try to attract visitors all year, e.g. cheap winter package
deals for older people reduces issue of seasonality.
o Litter bins emptied regularly and promenade swept.
o Green flags indicate safe areas to swim.
o Chemicals added to the sea to maintain the water quality.
o Police patrol the beach which is cleaned by hand every day.
o Theme park to reduce the honeypot effect on the beach and to

tler
u
B

l
e
d
o
s M

3. Sustainable tourism: Bhutan

Primary resources for

tourism: scenery,
unique,
78% Buddhist,
mountains, birds,
ancient culture
Attracts sensitive
tourists willing to pay
a premium for
ecotourism
credentials

Development of tourism

1974 King instigates a top-down investment after the influx of travellers for his coronation

Landlocked country, tourism on of the few options for generating income from exports

Bhutan's tourism policy = larger development philosophy within Bhutan = living standards of its people,

BUT development in Bhutan is not judged merely by material prosperity and income growth - happiness, contentment, and the
spiritual and emotional well being of its people

tourism was managed by the Department of Tourism then

1980 - tourism was managed by the Department of Tourism

1983 - Royal Tourism Corporation fully autonomous commercial

1991 fully privatized

33 licensed operators under the Tourism Authority of Bhutan (TAB)

principle of sustainability (i.e. it must be environmentally friendly, socially and culturally acceptable, and economically
viable).

control on numbers by government regulated tourist tariffs, and a set of administrative requirements.= "High Value- Low
Volume"

Pricing policy must be package tourists - price set by the government is US$250 per day, per person.

Of this tariff, a 10% commission goes to the external foreign travel agent,

35% is paid as a government royalty,

55% is the tour operator's to be spent in Bhutan. The tariff increases if the tourist wants to travel alone or in very small
groups = small groups incur higher per capita expenditure and have a greater impact on the environment than
the large groups.

Infrastructure within the country will dictate overall tourist visitors

TAB grants visas thus controlling the number of them not the market

Trekking in Bhutan requires another permit form TAB = ensure that no one route is over used or new ones opened

Trekking tours are only conducted on approved trails and camping in designated campsites. This also helps to

4. A case study of international migration (eg

asylum seekers and economic migrants to UK).
BACKGROUND

Poland joined EU in May 2004 = 300,000 workers have settled in the UK (+

thought to be many more who are not legally Registered)
A 3rd phase of Polish migrants since the WWII
1st = were 200,000 political migrants, ex-servicemen who fought for the
allies, or their families who were deported from E. Poland to camps in
Siberia by the Russians during the war, who came to Britain in 1948.
2nd = were here when martial law was declared in Poland in 1981.
Est. total No living in the UK today with a Polish connection = 750,000 (=
Pakistani & > Afro-Caribbean community.
59% of all applicants to the Work Registration Scheme have been Polish (mostly
18-35yrs old)
99% of Poles in the UK are in work

For

Positives

UK

Cheap workforce hardworking skilled or not esp.

for labour intensive industry such as food processing
population in some rural area (Lincolnshire) =
keeping schools and shops viable
Create demand for specialist services such as
translators and delis = local jobs & tax raised
cultural diversity

Poland

Remittances from overseas earnings (multiplier

effect) 4bn since 2004.
Reduces unemployment
Returning migrants bring ideas and investment
capital

Some

600,000 arrived from E.Europe between 2004 & 2006

Negatives
Displaces local young workers
Risk of social unrest due to clustering &
perceived crime/favoured status
Dependency on migrants may be
unsustainable if they return
Leakage remittances sent pack to Poland
will not be used in a local multiplier effect
(4bn)
May be guilty of crimes in Poland
Loss of young hard working group
Loss of potential entrepreneurs
Loss of local consumers (negative
multiplier)
Loss of skilled workers 10% of Polish
doctors have left, leaving health service
understaffed