Lecture 6.

Fluid Mechanics
MARI-5590
Aquatic System Design
Dr. Joe M. Fox

Topics Covered

Fluid statics
Pressure measurement
Fluids in motion
Pump performance parameters

Note: most of the lecture comes from Lawson, T.B.,

1995.

Fluid Statics

Fluid statics: study of fluids at rest

Different from fluid dynamics in that it concerns pressure
forces perpendicular to a plane (referred to as hydrostatic
pressure)
If you pick any one point in a static fluid, that point is going
to have a specific pressure intensity associated with it:
P = F/A where

P = pressure in Pascals (Pa, lb/ft3) or Newtons (N, kg/m3)

F = normal forces acting on an area (lbs or kgs)
A = area over which the force is acting (ft 2 or m2)

Fluid Statics

This equation, P = F/A, can be used to

calculate pressure on the bottom of a tank
filled with a liquid (or.. at any depth)
F = V

= fluid specific wt
(N/m3), V = volume (m3)

P = h

h = depth of water
(m or ft)

h
P1

Fluid Statics

Pressure is the same at all points at equal height

from the bottom of the tank
Point: temp doesnt make that much difference in
pressure for most aquaculture situations
Example: What is the pressure at a point 12 ft.
from the bottom of a tank containing freshwater at
80oF vs. 40oF?

80oF = 62.22 lb/ft3; thus, P = (62.22)(12) = 746.4 lb/ft 2

40oF = 62.43 lb/ft3; thus, P = (62.43)(12) = 749.2 lb/ft2

Fluids in Motion

Fundamental equation:
Qin Qout = storage
Qin = quantity flowing into the system; Qout = that flowing out; the difference
is whats stored

If we divide

storage by a time interval (e.g., seconds), we can

determine rate of filling or draining
Very applicable to tanks, ponds, etc.
Problem: A 100,000 m3 pond (about 10 ha) is continuously filled with water
from a distribution canal at 100 m3 per minute. Assuming that the pond was
initially full, but some idiot removed too many flashboards in the exit gate and
it was draining at 200 m3 per minute, how long will it take to be essentially
empty?

Volume/flow rate = 100,000 m3/200 m3/min = 500 min

Closed System Fluids in Motion

Lets say were not dealing with a system open to the atmosphere
(e.g., a pipe vs. a pond)
Theres no storage potential, so Q1 = Q2, a mass balance equation
For essentially incompressible fluids such as water, the equation
becomes V1A1 = V2A2,; where V = velocity (m/s) and A = area (m 2)
Can be used to estimate flow velocity along a pipe, especially
where constrictions are concerned
Example: If one end of a pipe has a diameter of 0.1 m and a flow
rate of 0.05 m/s, what will be the flow velocity at a constriction in
the other end having a diameter of 0.01 m? Ans. V 2 = 0.5 m/s

Bernoullis Equation

Z1 + (P1/) + (V12/2g) = Z2 + (P2/) + (V22/2g)

Wow! Z = pressure head, V2/2g = velocity head (heard of
these?), 2g = (2)(32.2) for Eng. System
If were trying to figure out how quickly a tank will drain,
we use this equation in a simplified form: Z = V2/2g
Example: If the vertical distance between the top of the
water in a tank and the centerline of its discharge pipe is
14 ft, what is the initial discharge velocity of the water
leaving the tank? Ans. = 30 ft/s
Can you think of any applications for this?

Reality

In actuality, fluids have losses due to

friction in the pipes and minor losses
associated with tees, elbows, valves, etc.
Also, there is usually an external power
source (pump). The equation becomes

Z1 + (P1/) + (V12/2g) + EP = Z2 + (P2/) + (V22/2g) + hm + hf

If no pump (gravity flow), EP = 0. EP is energy from the

pump, hm and hf = minor and frictional head losses, resp.

Minor Losses

These are losses in pressure associated with the fluid

encountering:

restrictions in the system (valves)

changes in direction (elbows, bends, tees, etc.)
changes in pipe size (reducers, expanders)
losses associated with fluid entering or leaving a pipe

Screens, foot valves also create minor losses

A loss coefficient, K, is associated with each
component
total minor losses, hm, = K(V2/2g)

Minor Loss Coefficients

Your Inevitable Example

Calculate the total minor

losses associated with the
pipe to the right when the
gate valve is open, D =
6 in., d = 3 in. and V =
2ft/s
Refer to the previous table
Ans: hm = 0.15 ft
hm = (0.9+1.15+0.4)(2)2
(2)(32.2)

Pipe Friction Losses

Caused by friction generated by the movement of

the fluid against the walls of pipes, fittings, etc.
Magnitude of the loss depends upon:

Internal pipe diameter

Fluid velocity
Roughness of internal pipe surfaces
Physical properties of the fluid (e.g., density, viscocity)
f = function

VD ,

Where, f = friction factor; D = inside pipe diameter; V =

fluid viscocity; = absolute roughness; = fluid
density; and = absolute viscocity

Pipe Friction Losses

VD ,/D

Is known as the Reynolds number, RN, also

written as VD/v

Simplified, f = 64/RN
/D
Is called the relative roughness and is the
ratio of the absolute roughness to inside pipe diameter

Moodys Diagram (Reynolds

Number vs. Relative Roughness)

Absolute Roughness Coefficients

Pipe Material
Riveted steel
Concrete
Wood stave
Cast iron
Galvanized iron
Commercial steel
Drawn tubing
PVC

Absolute Roughness (in.)

.036-.358
.012-.122
.007-.035
.010
.0059
.0018
.000059
.00000197

Darcy-Weisbach Equation

hf = f(L/D)(V2/2g)
Where hf = pipe friction head loss (m/ft); f =
friction factor; L = total straight length of pipe
(m/ft); D = inside pipe diameter (m/ft); V = fluid
velocity (m/s or ft/s); g = gravitational constant
(m/s2 or ft/s2)
Problem: Water at 20 C is flowing through a 500 m
section of 10 cm diameter old cast iron pipe at a
velocity of 1.5m/s. Calculate the total friction
losses , hf, using the Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Ans.

Answer to Previous

RN = VD/; where or kinematic viscocity

is 1 x 10-6 (trust me on this)
RN = (1.5)(0.1)/.000001 = 150,000
= .026 (in cm) for cast iron pipe; /D = .
00026 m/.1 = .0026
f = 0.027 where on Moodys Diagram /D
aligns with a Reynolds Number of 150,000
hf = (.0027)(500)(1.5)2 = 15.5 m
(0.1)(2)(9.81)

Reality

This value, hf is added to hm to arrive at your total

losses
Alternative method for frictional losses: HazenWilliams equation
hf = (10.7LQ1.852)/(C1.852)(D4.87) metric systems
hf = (4.7LQ1.852)/((C1.852)(D4.87) English systems

Where hf = pipe friction losses (m, ft); L = length of

piping (m, ft); Q = flow rate (m3/s, ft3/s); C = HazenWilliams coefficient; and D = pipe diameter (m, ft)

Hazen-Williams Values
Pipe Material
Asbestos cement
Concrete (average)
Copper
Fire hose
Cast iron (new)
Cast iron (old)
PVC
Steel (new)

C
140
130
130-140
135
140
40-120
150
120

Example

Estimate the friction losses in a 6-in.

diameter piping system containing 200 ft of
straight pipe, a half-closed gate valve, two
close return bends and four ell90s. The
water velocity in the pipe is 2.5 ft/s?
hf = (10.7)(145m)(0.014)1.852
(120)1.852(0.152)4.87
= 2.6 ft

OK, what about PUMPING?

Pumps performance is described by the following

parameters:

Capacity
Head
Power
Efficiency
Net positive suction head
Specific speed

Capacity, Q, is the volume of water delivered per

unit time by the pump (usually gpm)

Pump Performance

Head is the net work done on a unit of water by the pump and is given
by the following equation
Hs = SL + DL + DD + hm + hf + ho + hv
Hs = system head, SL = suction-side lift, DD = water source
drawdown, hm = minor losses (as previous), hf = friction losses (as
previous), ho = operating head pressure, and h v = velocity head (V2/2g)
Suction and discharge static lifts are measured when the system is not
operating
DD, drawdown, is decline of the water surface elevation of the source
water due to pumping (mainly for wells)

DD, hm, hf, ho and hv all increase with increased pumping

capacity, Q

Pump Performance: power

Power to operate a pump is directly proportional to

discharge head, specific gravity of the fluid (water), and is
inversely proportional to pump efficiency
Power imparted to the water by the pump is referred to as
water horsepower
WHP = QHS/K; where Q = pump capacity or discharge, H
= head, S = specific gravity, K = 3,960 for WHP in hp and
Q in gpm.
WHP can also equal Q(TDH)/3,960 where TDH = total
dynamic head (sum of all losses while pump is operating)

Pump Performance: efficiency

Usually determined by brake horsepower (BHP)

BHP = power that must be applied to the shaft of the
pump by a motor to turn the impeller and impart power
to the water
Ep = 100(WHP/BHP) = output/input
Ep never equals 100% due to energy losses such as
friction in bearings around shaft, moving water against
pump housing, etc.
Centrifugal pump efficiencies range from 25-85%
If pump is incorrectly sized, Ep is lower.

Pump Performance: suction

head

Conditions on the suction side of a pump can impart

limitations on pumping systems
What is the elevation of the pump relative to the water
source?
Static suction lift (SL) = vertical distance from water
surface to centerline of the pump
SL is positive if pump is above water surface, negative if
below
Total suction head (Hs) = SL + friction losses + velocity
head:
Hs = SL + (hm + hf) + V2s/2g

Pump Performance Curves

Report data on a pump relevant to head,

efficiency, power requirements, and net
positive suction head to capacity
Each pump is unique dependent upon its
geometry and dimensions of the impeller
and casing
Reported as an average or as the poorest
performance

Characteristic Pump Curves

Head as capacity
Efficiency as
capacity , up to a
point
BHP as capacity ,
also up to a point
REM:
BHP =
100QHS/Ep3,960