Cricoid cartilage

Important laryngeal
muscles and ligaments
are attached to the
cricoid cartilage
Articulates superiorly
with the arytenoid
cartilages
Attached inferiorly to
the first tracheal
cartilage via ligaments

Cartilages of the Larynx

The Epiglottis
Projects superior to and
forms a lid over the
glottis
Elastic cartilage
Attached to the hyoid
bone and thyroid
cartilage by ligaments
During swallowing the
larynx is elevated while
the epiglottis folds back
over the glottis

The Epiglottis
Black arrow shows
the direction the
epiglottis moves
during swallowing
White arrows show
the direction that
air flows

Small Paired Cartilages of the

Larynx
Arytenoid
Corniculate
Cuneiform

Vocal Cords

(Vestibular fold)

The Trachea

The Trachea
12.5 cm long; 2.5 cm diameter
Anterior to esophagus
Begins at vertebra C6 and ends in the
mediastinum at vertebra T5 where it
branches to form the left and right
primary bronchi
Lined by C-shaped cartilage rings (15
-20)
Smooth muscle between cartilage rings

The Bronchial Tree

The Primary Bronchi

Right and left primary bronchi are
separated by an internal ridge called
the carina
Supported by c-shaped cartilage rings
Right primary bronchus has a larger
diameter and enters the right lung at a
steeper gradient than the left
Primary bronchi branch into secondary
bronchi

The Bronchi & Lungs

Each bronchus travels to the Hilum,
along the medial surface of the lung
The hilum also provides access to
pulmonary vessels, nerves and
lymphatics
All are anchored in a mesh of
connective tissue collectively called
the ROOT of the lung

The Lungs

The Lungs

Pleural Membranes

Bronchioles

Bronchioles
Tertiary bronchi branch into bronchioles
Bronchioles into terminal bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles into respiratory
bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles into alveolar ducts

Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles smooth
muscle; simple cuboidal epithelium;
no goblet cells
Respiratory Bronchioles simple
cuboidal epithelium with scattered
cilia; no goblet cells; elastic fibres

Bronchioles

Alveolar Epithelium

Alveolar Epithelium
Consists of:
Pneumocytes type I
simple squamous cells that facilitate gaseous
exchange

Alveolar Macrophages
dust cells; phagocytic cells that engulf particles
that may have eluded other respiratory defenses

Pneumocytes type II
septal cells; produce surfactant that reduces the
surface tension of water lining the lungs
preventing lung collapse

Alveolar Epithelium

Respiratory Membrane

Pulmonary Ventilation
Physical movement of air into and
out of the respiratory tract
Important Factors:
Atmospheric pressure (760mmHg)
exerted on all objects
Boyles Law ( P = 1/V)
Air moves from high to low pressure

Quiet Breathing
Inhalation
Diaphragm contracts and flattens
External intercostal muscles contract.
Pulling ribcage upward and outward
Thoracic cavity volume increases
Lung volume increases
Intra-pulmonary pressure decreases to
759 mmHg
Air moves into lungs from the atmosphere

Quiet Breathing
Exhalation
Diaphragm relaxes and becomes domeshaped
External intercostal muscles relax causing
the rib cage to move downward and inward
Thoracic and lung volumes decrease
Intrapulmonary pressure increases to 761
mmHg
Air flows out of lungs

Quiet Exhalation
A Passive Process
No stimulation is received from the
respiratory centers of the brain for
the respiratory muscles to relax

Forced Breathing
Involves the use of Accessory
muscles along with the external
intercostal muscles and diaphragm

Forced Breathing

Forced Breathing
Forced Inhalation
Sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles aid
the external intercostal muscles to pull the
ribcage upward a little further than in quiet
breathing
Diaphragm contracts and flattens
Thoracic and lung volumes increase
Intrapulmonary pressure decreases
Air rushes into the lungs because of the
sharper gradient in air pressure between the
lungs and the environment

Forced Breathing
Forced Exhalation
Internal intercostals, Rectus abdominis and
Transversus abdominis contract; and External
intercostals relax causing the ribcage to move
inward and downward a bit further than in
quiet exhalation
Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped
Thoracic and lung volumes decrease
Intrapulmonary pressure increases
Air rushes out forcefully

Oxygen Transport
1.5 % in plasma
98.5% attached to Haemoglobin

Haemoglobin Saturation
Percent haem units containing bound
O2

Haemoglobin Saturation
Hb is a protein and changes shape in
different environmental conditions
Partial pressure of Oxygen
pH of blood
Temperature
Ongoing metabolic activity of RBCs

Haemoglobin Saturation Curve

(pH 7.4, Temp 37oC)
Percent Hb saturation
increases with
increasing oxygen
levels
The plateau of the
curve represents no
significant increase in
Hb saturation as O2
increases because
most haem sites have
O2 bound to them

Haemoglobin Saturation Curve

http://www.as.miami.edu/chemistry/2086/Chap23/The%20Respiratory%20System%20Part%202_files/image004.jpg

Haemoglobin Saturation Curve

Black curve
represents Hb
saturation under
normal conditions
Left curve
produced when
temperature
decreases,
pH increases and
metabolic activity of
RBCs decreases

Carbon Dioxide Transport