Chapter 2

Hydrocarbon Frameworks:
Alkanes

2.1
Classes of Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic
Aliphatic

Aromatic
Aromatic

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic
Aliphatic

Alkanes
Alkanes

Aromatic
Aromatic

Alkenes
Alkenes

Alkynes
Alkynes

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic
Aliphatic

Alkanes
Alkanes

Alkanes are
hydrocarbons in which
all of the bonds are
single bonds.

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic
Aliphatic

Alkenes are
hydrocarbons that
contain a carboncarbon double bond.
H

H
C

Alkenes
Alkenes
H

C
H

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic
Aliphatic

Alkynes are
hydrocarbons that
contain a carboncarbon triple bond.

Alkynes
Alkynes
HC

CH

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons
The most common
aromatic hydrocarbons
are those that contain
a benzene ring.

Aromatic
Aromatic

H
H

2.2
Electron Waves and
Chemical Bonds

Models for Chemical Bonding

The Lewis model of chemical bonding predates
the idea that electrons have wave properties.
There are two other widely used theories of
bonding that are based on the wave nature of an
electron.
Valence Bond Theory
Molecular Orbital Theory

Formation of H2 from Two Hydrogen Atoms

Examine how the electrostatic forces change

as two hydrogen atoms are brought together.
These electrostatic forces are:
attractions between the electrons and
the nuclei
repulsions between the two nuclei
repulsions between the two electrons

Figure 2.1
weak net attraction at
long distances
Potential
energy

H + H
H

Internuclear distance

Figure 2.1
attractive forces increase
faster than repulsive forces
as atoms approach each other
Potential
energy

H + H
H
H
H

Internuclear distance

Figure 2.1
maximum net attraction
(minimum potential energy)
at 74 pm internuclear distance
Potential
energy

74 pm

H + H
H
H
H

-436 kJ/mol

H2
Internuclear distance

Figure 2.1

1s

1s

2 H atoms: each electron "feels"

attractive force of one proton

H2 molecule: each electron "feels"

attractive force of both protons

Figure 2.1
repulsive forces increase
faster than attractive forces
at distances closer than 74 pm
Potential
energy

74 pm

H + H
H
H
H

-436 kJ/mol

H2
Internuclear distance

Models for Chemical Bonding

Valence Bond Theory
constructive interference between electron
waves of two half-filled atomic orbitals is basis
of shared-electron bond
Molecular Orbital Theory
derive wave functions of molecules
by combining wave functions of atoms

2.3
Bonding in H2:
The Valence Bond Model

Valence Bond Model

Electron pair can be shared when half-filled

orbital of one atom overlaps in phase with
half-filled orbital of another.

Valence Bond Model

1s

1s

in-phase overlap of two half-filled

hydrogen 1s orbitals

bond of H2

Valence Bond Model

Bond: orbitals overlap along
internuclear axis
Cross section of orbital perpendicular to
internuclear axis is a circle.

Valence Bond Model of H2

Figure 2.4(a) The 1s orbitals of two separated hydrogen

atoms are far apart. Essentially no interaction. Each
electron is associated with a single proton.

Valence Bond Model of H2

Figure 2.4(b) As the hydrogen atoms approach each other,

their 1s orbitals begin to overlap and each electron begins to
feel the attractive force of both protons.

Valence Bond Model of H2

Figure 2.4(c) The hydrogen atoms are close enough so that

appreciable overlap of the the two 1s orbitals occurs. The
concentration of electron density in the region between the
two protons is more readily apparent.

Valence Bond Model of H2

Figure 2.4(d) A molecule of H2. The two hydrogen 1s

orbitals have been replaced by a new orbital that
encompasses both hydrogens and contains both electrons.

2.4
Bonding in H2:
The Molecular Orbital Model

Main Ideas
Electrons in a molecule occupy molecular
orbitals (MOs) just as electrons in an atom
occupy atomic orbitals (AOs).
Two electrons per MO, just as two electrons
per AO.
Express MOs as combinations of AOs.

MO Picture of Bonding in H2
Linear combination of atomic orbitals method
expresses wave functions of molecular orbitals
as sums and differences of wave functions
of atomic orbitals.
Two AOs yield two MOs
Bonding combination

Antibonding combination

MO = (H)1s + (H')1s 'MO = (H)1s - (H')1s

Fig. 2.6: Energy-Level Diagram for H2 MOs

1s

1s
AO

AO

Fig. 2.6: Energy-Level Diagram for H2 MOs

MO

MO

antibonding

bonding

CnH2n+2
2.5
Introduction to Alkanes:
Methane, Ethane, and Propane

The Simplest Alkanes

Methane

(CH4)

CH4

Ethane

(C2H6)

CH3CH3

Propane

(C3H8)

CH3CH2CH3

bp -160C

bp -89C

bp -42C

2.6
sp3 Hybridization
and
Bonding in Methane

Structure of Methane

tetrahedral
bond angles = 109.5
bond distances = 110 pm
but structure seems inconsistent with
electron configuration of carbon

Electron configuration of carbon

only two unpaired

electrons

2p

should form
bonds to only two
hydrogen atoms

2s

bonds should be
at right angles to
one another

sp3 Orbital Hybridization

2p
Promote an electron from the 2s
to the 2p orbital

2s

sp3 Orbital Hybridization

2p

2p

2s

2s

sp3 Orbital Hybridization

2p
Mix together (hybridize) the 2s
orbital and the three 2p orbitals

2s

sp3 Orbital Hybridization

2p
2 sp3
4 equivalent half-filled
orbitals are consistent with
four bonds and tetrahedral
geometry

2s

sp3 Orbital Hybridization

Nodal properties of orbitals

Shape of sp3 hybrid orbitals

take the s orbital and place it on top

of the p orbital

Shape of sp3 hybrid orbitals

s+p

reinforcement of electron wave in regions

where sign is the same
destructive interference in regions of opposite
sign

Shape of sp3 hybrid orbitals

sp hybrid

orbital shown is sp hybrid

analogous procedure using three s orbitals and
one p orbital gives sp3 hybrid
shape of sp3 hybrid is similar

Shape of sp3 hybrid orbitals

sp hybrid

hybrid orbital is not symmetrical

higher probability of finding an electron on one side
of the nucleus than the other
leads to stronger bonds

The CH Bond in Methane

In-phase overlap of a half-filled 1s orbital of
hydrogen with a half-filled sp3 hybrid orbital of
carbon:
+
H

gives a bond.
+
HC

sp3

Justification for Orbital Hybridization

consistent with structure of methane

allows for formation of 4 bonds rather than 2
bonds involving sp3 hybrid orbitals are stronger
than those involving s-s overlap or p-p overlap

2.7
Bonding in Ethane

Structure of Ethane

C2H6
CH3CH3

tetrahedral geometry at each carbon

CH bond distance = 110 pm
CC bond distance = 153 pm

The CC Bond in Ethane

In-phase overlap of half-filled sp3 hybrid

orbital of one carbon with half-filled sp3
hybrid orbital of another.
Overlap is along internuclear axis to give a bond.

The CC Bond in Ethane

In-phase overlap of half-filled sp3 hybrid

orbital of one carbon with half-filled sp3
hybrid orbital of another.
Overlap is along internuclear axis to give a bond.

C4H10

2.8
Isomeric Alkanes:
The Butanes

n-Butane

CH3CH2CH2CH3

Isobutane

(CH3)3CH

bp -0.4C

bp -10.2C

2.9
Higher n-Alkanes

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
n-Pentane

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
n-Hexane

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
n-Heptane

2.10
The C5H12 Isomers

C5H12

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3

(CH3)2CHCH2CH3

n-Pentane

Isopentane

(CH3)4C
Neopentane

How many isomers?

The number of isomeric alkanes increases as the

number of carbons increase.
There is no simple way to predict how many isomers
there are for a particular molecular formula.

Table 2.1
Number of Constitutionally Isomeric Alkanes

CH4
C2H6

1
1

C3H8
C4H10

1
2

C5H12
C6H14

3
5

C7H16

Table 2.1
Number of Constitutionally Isomeric Alkanes

CH4
C2H6

1
1

C8H18
C9H20

18
35

C3H8
C4H10

1
2

C10H22
C15H32

75
4,347

C5H12
C6H14

3
5

C20H42
C40H82

366,319
62,491,178,805,831

C7H16

2.11
IUPAC Nomenclature of
Unbranched Alkanes

Table 2.4
IUPAC Names of Unbranched Alkanes
Retained:
methane

CH4

ethane

CH3CH3

propane

CH3CH2CH3

butane

CH3CH2CH2CH3

Table 2.2
IUPAC Names of Unbranched Alkanes
Note:
n-prefix is not part of IUPAC name of
any alkane.
For example: n-butane is "common name"
for CH3CH2CH2CH3; butane is "IUPAC name."
Others:
Latin or Greek prefix for number of
carbons + ane suffix

Table 2.2
IUPAC Names of Unbranched Alkanes
Number of carbons Name

Structure

pentane

CH3(CH2)3CH3

hexane

CH3(CH2)4CH3

heptane

CH3(CH2)5CH3

octane

CH3(CH2)6CH3

nonane

CH3(CH2)7CH3

10

decane

CH3(CH2)8CH3

Table 2.2
IUPAC Names of Unbranched Alkanes
Number of carbons Name

Structure

11

undecane

CH3(CH2)9CH3

12

dodecane

CH3(CH2)10CH3

13

tridecane

CH3(CH2)11CH3

14

tetradecane

CH3(CH2)12CH3

15

pentadecane CH3(CH2)7CH3

16

hexadecane CH3(CH2)8CH3

Table 2.2
IUPAC Names of Unbranched Alkanes
Number of carbons Name

Structure

17

heptadecane CH3(CH2)15CH3

18

octadecane

19

nonadecane CH3(CH2)17CH3

20

icosane

25

pentacosane CH3(CH2)22CH3

30

triacontane

CH3(CH2)16CH3

CH3(CH2)18CH3

CH3(CH2)28CH3

2.12
Applying the IUPAC Rules:
The Names of the C6H14 Isomers

The C6H14 Isomers

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

(CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH3

(CH3CH2)2CHCH3

(CH3)2CHCH(CH3)2

(CH3)3CCH2CH3

The C6H14 Isomers

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
Hexane
The IUPAC name of the unbranched alkane
with a chain of 6 carbons is hexane.

IUPAC Nomenclature of Branched

Alkanes (Table 2.6)
Step 1) Find the longest continuous carbon
chain and use the IUPAC name of the
unbranched alkane as the basis.
Step 2) Add name of substituent as a prefix.
Step 3) Number the chain from the end nearest
the substituent, and identify the carbon to
which the substituent is attached by number.

The C6H14 Isomers

(CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH3
2-Methylpentane

(CH3CH2)2CHCH3
3-Methylpentane

The C6H14 Isomers

(CH3)2CHCH(CH3)2
2,3-Dimethylbutane

(CH3)3CCH2CH3

2,2-Dimethylbutane
Use replicating prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, etc.)
according to the number of identical substituents
attached to the main chain.

2.13
Alkyl Groups

Methyl and Ethyl Groups

H
Methyl

or

CH3

or

CH3CH2

Ethyl

Unbranched Alkyl Groups

R

If potential point of attachment is at the end

of the chain, take the IUPAC name of the
corresponding unbranched alkane and replace
the -ane ending by -yl.

Unbranched Alkyl Groups

R

If potential point of attachment is at the end

of the chain, take the IUPAC name of the
corresponding unbranched alkane and replace
the -ane ending by -yl.

or
Butyl

CH3CH2CH2CH2

Unbranched Alkyl Groups

CH3(CH2)4CH2

Hexyl

CH3(CH2)5CH2

Heptyl

CH3(CH2)16CH2

Octadecyl

The C3H7 Alkyl Groups

or

CH3CH2CH2

and

or

CH3CHCH3

The C3H7 Alkyl Groups

or

CH3CH2CH2

IUPAC name: Propyl

Common name: n-Propyl

Naming Alkyl Groups (Table 2.7)

Step 1: Identify longest continuous chain starting at
point of attachment.
Step 2: Drop -ane ending from name of unbranched
alkane having same number of carbons as
longest continuous chain and replace by -yl.
Step 3: Identify substituents on longest continuous
chain.
Step 4: Chain is always numbered starting at
point of attachment.

The C3H7 Alkyl Groups

or

CH3CHCH3

H
IUPAC name: 1-Methylethyl
Common name: Isopropyl

The C3H7 Alkyl Groups

or

CH3CH2CH2

Classification: Primary alkyl group

Alkyl groups are classified according to the
degree of substitution at the carbon that bears the
point of attachment. A carbon that is directly
attached to one other carbon is a primary carbon.

The C3H7 Alkyl Groups

or

CH3CHCH3

Classification: Secondary alkyl group

Alkyl groups are classified according to the
degree of substitution at the carbon that bears the
point of attachment. A carbon that is directly
attached to two other carbons is a secondary carbon.

The C4H9 Alkyl Groups

or

CH3CH2CH2CH2

IUPAC name: Butyl

Common name: n-Butyl
Classification: Primary alkyl group

The C4H9 Alkyl Groups

H
H

C
H

H
C

or CH3CHCH2CH3

IUPAC name: 1-Methylpropyl

Common name: sec-Butyl
Classification: Secondary alkyl group

The C4H9 Alkyl Groups

CH3
3

CH3

CH2

H
IUPAC name: 2-Methylpropyl
Common name: Isobutyl
Classification: Primary alkyl group

The C4H9 Alkyl Groups

CH3
CH3

CH3

IUPAC name: 1,1-Dimethylethyl

Common name: tert-Butyl
Classification: Tertiary alkyl group

2.14
IUPAC Names of Highly
Branched Alkanes

Branched alkanes

Octane

Branched alkanes

4-Ethyloctane

Branched alkanes

4-Ethyl-3-methyloctane
List substituents in alphabetical order.

Branched alkanes

4-Ethyl-3,5-dimethyloctane
List substituents in alphabetical order, including
Iso and Neo.
But don't alphabetize di-, tri-, tetra-, etc.

EJEMPLO

Cn H2 n

2.15
Cycloalkane Nomenclature

Cycloalkanes
Cycloalkanes are alkanes that contain a ring of
three or more carbons.
Count the number of carbons in the ring, and add
the prefix cyclo to the IUPAC name of the
unbranched alkane that has that number of
carbons.

Cyclopentane

Cyclohexane

Cycloalkanes
Name any alkyl groups on the ring in the usual
way.

CH2CH3
Ethylcyclopentane

Cycloalkanes
Name any alkyl groups on the ring in the usual
way.
List substituents in alphabetical order and count
in the direction that gives the lowest numerical
locant at the first point of difference.
H3C

CH3

CH2CH3
3-Ethyl-1,1-dimethylcyclohexane

2.16
Sources of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

Crude oil

Naphtha
Naphtha
(bp
(bp95-150
95-150C)
C)

Kerosene
Kerosene
(bp:
(bp: 150-230
150-230C)
C)

C5-C12
Light
Lightgasoline
gasoline
(bp:
(bp:25-95
25-95C)
C)
Refinery
Refinerygas
gas
C1-C4

C12-C15

Crude oil

C15-C25
Gas
Gasoil
oil
(bp:
(bp: 230-340
230-340C)
C)

Residue
Residue

Petroleum Refining
Cracking
converts high molecular weight hydrocarbons
to more useful, low molecular weight ones
Reforming
increases branching of hydrocarbon chains
branched hydrocarbons have better burning
characteristics for automobile engines

2.17
Physical Properties of Alkanes
and Cycloalkanes

Boiling Points of Alkanes

governed by strength of intermolecular
attractive forces
alkanes are nonpolar, so dipole-dipole and
dipole-induced dipole forces are absent
only forces of intermolecular attraction are
induced dipole-induced dipole forces

Induced dipole-Induced dipole attractive forces

two nonpolar molecules

center of positive charge and center of negative
charge coincide in each

Induced dipole-Induced dipole attractive forces

movement of electrons creates an

instantaneous dipole in one molecule (left)

Induced dipole-Induced dipole attractive forces

temporary dipole in one molecule (left) induces

a complementary dipole in other molecule
(right)

Induced dipole-Induced dipole attractive forces

temporary dipole in one molecule (left) induces

a complementary dipole in other molecule
(right)

Induced dipole-Induced dipole attractive forces

the result is a small attractive force between

the two molecules

Induced dipole-Induced dipole attractive forces

the result is a small attractive force between

the two molecules

Boiling Points
increase with increasing number of carbons
more atoms, more electrons, more
opportunities for induced dipole-induced
dipole forces
decrease with chain branching
branched molecules are more compact with
smaller surface areafewer points of contact
with other molecules

Boiling Points
increase with increasing number of carbons
more atoms, more electrons, more
opportunities for induced dipole-induced
dipole forces

Heptane
bp 98C

Octane
bp 125C

Nonane
bp 150C

Boiling Points
decrease with chain branching
branched molecules are more compact with
smaller surface areafewer points of contact
with other molecules

Octane: bp 125C

2-Methylheptane: bp 118C
2,2,3,3-Tetramethylbutane: bp 107C

Punto de fusin

Punto de ebullicin

2.18
Chemical Properties:
Combustion of Alkanes
All alkanes burn in air to give
carbon dioxide and water.

Heats of Combustion
increase with increasing number of carbons
more moles of O2 consumed, more moles
of CO2 and H2O formed

Heats of Combustion

Heptane

4817 kJ/mol
654 kJ/mol

Octane

5471 kJ/mol
654 kJ/mol

Nonane

6125 kJ/mol

Heats of Combustion
increase with increasing number of carbons
more moles of O2 consumed, more moles
of CO2 and H2O formed
decrease with chain branching
branched molecules are more stable
(have less potential energy) than their
unbranched isomers

Heats of Combustion

5471 kJ/mol

5 kJ/mol
5466 kJ/mol

8 kJ/mol
5458 kJ/mol

6 kJ/mol
5452 kJ/mol

Important Point
Isomers can differ in respect to their stability.
Equivalent statement:
Isomers differ in respect to their potential energy.
Differences in potential energy can be measured by
comparing heats of combustion.

Figure 2.15

5471 kJ/mol
25
O2
+
2

5466 kJ/mol
5458 kJ/mol
+

25
O2
2

5452 kJ/mol
+

8CO2 + 9H2O

25
O2
2

25
O2
+
2

2.19
Oxidation-Reduction in Organic
Chemistry
Oxidation of carbon corresponds to an
increase in the number of bonds between
carbon and oxygen and/or a decrease
in the number of carbon-hydrogen bonds.

O
O

increasing oxidation
state of carbon
O
H
H
H

C
H
-4

H
H

HO

OH

OH

H
-2

+2

+4

OH

HC

increasing oxidation
state of carbon
H
H
H

H
-3

H
C

H
H

CH

-2

-1

But most compounds contain several (or many)

carbons, and these can be in different oxidation
states.

CH3CH2OH

C2H6O

But most compounds contain several (or many)

carbons, and these can be in different oxidation
states.
Working from the molecular formula gives
the average oxidation state.
CH3CH2OH

C2H6O
Average oxidation
state of C = -2

How can we calculate the oxidation state

of each carbon in a molecule that contains
carbons in different oxidation states?

CH3CH2OH

C2H6O
Average oxidation
state of C = -2

Table 2.5 How to Calculate Oxidation Numbers

1. Write the Lewis

structure and
include unshared
electron pairs.

H
H

Table 2.5 How to Calculate Oxidation Numbers

2. Assign the electrons

in a covalent bond
between two atoms
to the more
electronegative
partner.

Table 2.5 How to Calculate Oxidation Numbers

3. For a bond between

two atoms of the
same element,
assign the electrons
in the bond equally.

Table 2.5 How to Calculate Oxidation Numbers

3. For a bond between

two atoms of the
same element,
assign the electrons
in the bond equally.

H
H

C
C

Table 2.5 How to Calculate Oxidation Numbers

4. Count the number of

electrons assigned
to each atom and
subtract that number
from the number of
valence electrons in
the neutral atom;
the result is the
oxidation number.

H
H

C
C

Each H
C of CH3
C of CH2O
O

=
=
=
=

+1
-3
-1
-2

Fortunately, we rarely need to calculate the

oxidation state of individual carbons in a molecule
.
We often have to decide whether a process
is an oxidation or a reduction.

Generalization
Oxidation of carbon occurs when a bond between
carbon and an atom which is less electronegative
than carbon is replaced by a bond to an atom that
is more electronegative than carbon. The reverse
process is reduction.

oxidation

reduction
X less electronegative than carbon
Y more electronegative than carbon

Examples

Oxidation
CH4 + Cl2

CH3Cl + HCl

Reduction
CH3Cl + 2Li

CH3Li + LiCl

2.20
sp2 Hybridization
and Bonding in Ethylene

Structure of Ethylene

C2H4
H2C=CH2
planar
bond angles:

close to 120

bond distances:

CH = 110 pm
C=C = 134 pm

sp2 Orbital Hybridization

2p
Promote an electron from the 2s
to the 2p orbital

2s

sp2 Orbital Hybridization

2p

2p

2s

2s

sp2 Orbital Hybridization

2p
Mix together (hybridize) the 2s
orbital and two of the three 2p orbitals

2s

sp2 Orbital Hybridization

2p
2 sp2
3 equivalent half-filled sp2
hybrid orbitals plus 1 p
orbital left unhybridized

2s

sp2 Orbital Hybridization

sp2 Orbital Hybridization

p
2 sp2

 Bonding in Ethylene

p
2 sp2

the unhybridized p orbital of

carbon is involved in bonding
to the other carbon

 Bonding
in Ethylene
Bonding in Ethylene

p
2 sp2

each carbon has an unhybridized 2p orbital

axis of orbital is perpendicular to the plane of the bonds

 Bonding
in Ethylene
Bonding in Ethylene

p
2 sp2
side-by-side overlap of half-filled
p orbitals gives a bond
double bond in ethylene has a
component and a component

2.21
sp Hybridization
and Bonding in Acetylene

Structure of Acetylene

C2H2
HC

CH

linear
bond angles:

180

bond distances:

CH = 106 pm
CC = 120 pm

sp Orbital Hybridization

2p
Promote an electron from the 2s
to the 2p orbital

2s

sp Orbital Hybridization

2p

2p

2s

2s

sp Orbital Hybridization

2p
Mix together (hybridize) the 2s
orbital and one of the three 2p
orbitals

2s

sp Orbital Hybridization

2p

2p

2 sp
2 equivalent half-filled sp
hybrid orbitals plus 2 p
orbitals left unhybridized

2s

sp Orbital Hybridization

sp Orbital Hybridization

2p

2 sp

 Bonding in Acetylene

2p

2 sp

the unhybridized p orbitals of

carbon are involved in separate
bonds to the other carbon

 Bonding
in Acetylene
Bonding in Acetylene

2p

2 sp
one bond involves one of the p orbitals on each carbon
there is a second bond perpendicular to this one

 Bonding
in Acetylene
Bonding in Acetylene

2p

2 sp

 Bonding
in Acetylene
Bonding in Acetylene

2p

2 sp

2.22
Which Theory of
Chemical Bonding is Best?

Three Models

Lewis
most familiareasiest to apply
Valence-Bond (Orbital Hybridization)
provides more insight than Lewis model
ability to connect structure and reactivity
hybridization develops with practice
Molecular Orbital
potentially the most powerful method
but is the most abstract
requires the most experience to use
effectively

to

1.8
Grupos Funcionales

Porcentaje de composicion

Empirical formula
Determining the Empirical and Molecular Formulas of
a Compound from Its Mass Percent Composition.
Dibutyl succinate is an insect repellent used against
household ants and roaches. Its composition is 62.58%
C,, 9.63% H and 27.79% O. Its experimentally
C
determined molecular mass is 230 u.
u. What are the
empirical and molecular formulas of dibutyl succinate?
Step 1: Determine the mass of each element in a 100g
sample.

C 62.58 g

Slide 164

H 9.63 g

General

O 27.79 g

Prentice-Hall

Example 3-5
Step 2: Convert masses to amounts in moles.
nC 62.58 g C

1 mol C
5.210 mol C
12.011 g C

1 mol H
nH 9.63 g H
9.55 mol H
1.008 g H
1 mol O
nO 27.79 g O
1.737 mol O
15.999 g O

Step 3: Write a tentative formula.

C5.21H9.55O1.74

Step 4: Convert to small whole numbers. C2.99H5.49O

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General

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Example 3-5
Step 5: Convert to a small whole number ratio.
Multiply 2 to get C5.98H10.98O2
The empirical formula is C6H11O2
Step 6: Determine the molecular formula.
Empirical formula mass is 115 u.
Molecular formula mass is 230 u.
The molecular formula is C12H22O4

Slide 166

General

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