Part of

MATERIALS SCIENCE
& AALearners
LearnersGuide
Guide
ENGINEERING
AN INTRODUCTORY E-BOOK

Anandh Subramaniam & Kantesh Balani

Materials Science and Engineering (MSE)
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur- 208016
Email: anandh@iitk.ac.in, URL: home.iitk.ac.in/~anandh
http://home.iitk.ac.in/~anandh/E-book.htm

SYMMETRY
Symmetry Operators
Translation Rotation Inversion Mirror
Roto-inversion Roto-reflection
Glide reflection Screw axis
Point Groups, Space Groups
Wyckoff Positions
Advanced Reading
Elementary Crystallography
M.J. Buerger
John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York (1956)
Fantastic book
with good
illustrations

Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry

F. Donald Bloss
Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York (1971)

From the heart of crystallography

http://pd.chem.ucl.ac.uk/pdnn/pdindex.htm

Symmetry
Perhaps our brains are hardwired to appreciate and understand symmetry (and hence
learning of symmetry will prove to be less cumbersome).
The term symmetry has two analogous terms: invariance and conservation.
Symmetry Invariance Conservation.
Symmetry being referred to can be associated with:
fundamental physical laws
(law of conservation of energy results from invariance in time)

geometrical symmetry of objects in space

(e.g. a tiling pattern in the floor, a cube, an Escher painting, etc.)

symmetry of properties
(any property of a crystal will have at least the symmetry of the crystal- Neumann principle)

The symmetry being considered in the current chapter is geometrical symmetry (associated
with lattices and crystals). In the case of crystals this symmetry further determines the
symmetry of properties of the crystal.

Pathway to understanding symmetry & crystal structures

A

If this page makes you a little queasyskip it!

Individual (simple) Symmetry Operators

These are the tools you would require
for understanding lattices and crystal
structures

Compound & Combination of Symmetry Operators

How symmetry operators without

translation combine

7 Crystal Systems

Point Groups
32 point groups in 3D

Lattices have only 7 distinct point groups

Also called Crystal Classes

How symmetry operators with

translation combine
How to repeat?

Space Groups
230 space groups in 3D

Asymmetric Unit

Wyckoff Positions

14 Bravais Lattices
Lattices have only 14 distinct space groups

Part of the geometry which cannot come

from symmetry (what to repeat!)

Where to put your stuff (say atoms) to get

a crystal from space groups

Why study symmetry?

Crystals are an important class of materials.
Crystals (and in fact quasicrystals also) are defined based on symmetry.
The symmetry being referred to in this context is geometrical symmetry.

Symmetry helps reduce the infinite amount of information required to describe a

crystal into a finite (preferably small) amount of information.*
Any property of a crystal will have at least the symmetry of the crystal
the Neumann Principle ( A property can have higher symmetry than the crystal).
One obvious manifestation of the symmetry inherent in a crystal, is the external
shape of the crystal.
Symmetry (in conjunction with other elements) helps us define an infinite crystal
in a succinct manner. (Infinite information is reduced to finite tangible information- will return to this soon).
Note the facets

KDP crystals grown from solution

* More about how this happens soon

Symmetry of What?
In crystallography (the language of describing crystals) when we talk of Symmetry; the
natural question which arises is: Symmetry of What?
The symmetry under consideration could be of one the following entities:
Lattice Crystal Motif Unit cell
(these are distinct and should not be confused with one another!)
When the symmetry is normally used, it is the symmetry of the crystal being referred to.

Lattice
Motif
Symmetry of the

Note the facets

Or the molecule

Crystal
Unit Cell

KDP crystals grown from solution

Eumorphic crystal
(equilibrium shape and growth shape of the crystal)
The external shape of the crystal corresponds to the point
group symmetry of the crystal

SYMMETRY

Though we all have an intuitive feel for symmetry it needs to be defined formally in terms of symmetry operators

If an object* is brought into self-coincidence after some operation the object is

said to possess symmetry with respect to that operation.

In other words there is no change before and after the action of a symmetry operator, then that object* is said to posses
symmetry with respect to that operation.

SYMMETRY OPERATOR
Given a general point a symmetry operator leaves a finite set of points in space.
A symmetry operator closes space onto itself.
Symmetry operators act on entire space and all its contents.
These contents could be
Geometrical entities (e.g. atoms),
Physical properties,
Other symmetry operators (like mirrors, rotation axes)
etc.
* The object being referred to here is a general object. It could be an isolated object like a pentagon, an infinite array of objects like an array
of pentagons, etc.

Some of the concepts in this slide are pretty advanced and can be learnt later via hyperlinks

NOTES:
Presence of symmetry enables us to consider only a part of a object (or other
entity which could even be infinite) in conjunction with the symmetry
operators (see coming slide for explanations)
All symmetry operators may not be required to understand/analyze/generate a
structure ( but a few basic ones are)
The effects of many symmetry operators may be identical (especially in lower
dimensions or when mirror symmetric objects are not involved)
Symmetry operators may act: (i) alone or (ii) as compound or
(iii) combination with other symmetry elements
Certain combination* of symmetry operators (without a translational component)
can also leave a finite set of points$ and these are called the Point Groups**
We can have point groups in 1D, 2D, 3D or nD in general.

Certain combination* of symmetry operators involving translations can leave a

periodic array of (finite set within unit cell) objects in space the Space Groups
We can have space groups in 1D, 2D, 3D or nD in general.
* Only certain specific combinations are allowed which possess this property.
$ Given a general point.

** A combination of symmetry elements that can compatibly pass through a common point.

Why do I need to talk about symmetry and symmetry operators?

If the object, collection of objects, crystal etc. (which is under consideration) has some symmetry then
the whole need not be described, but only a part can be described along with the symmetry operators.
For example consider a square (as below). An infinite tiling of squares can be thought of as a single
square repeated in x and y directions Further one half of the square with a mirror plane (mirror line
in 2D) can give the whole square. Or a quarter of a square with two mirror planes or a diagonal half
of the quarter with three mirror planes. (note: mirror planes in 2D are lines)
Consider an infinite pattern made of squares

This can be thought of as

a single square repeated
in x and y directions

Else one could have considered a quarter of the object along with a 4-fold rotation operation (with symbol and
which rotates space by 90).
Now imagine that the 1/8th triangle had a 1000 atoms in it- we will have to give the coordinates of a 7000
atoms less!

Hence, we use the language of symmetry to be terse in

our description (i.e. to supply minimum information)

Classification of Symmetry Operators

Dimension of the Operator
Takes an object to its mirror form or not

Based on
If the operator acts at a point or moves a point

(i.e. outside a unit cell)

If it plays a role in the shape of a crystal or not (Macroscopic/Microscopic)

Additionally, symmetry operators and point groups can be ordered based on the
order (of the symmetry operator or point group).

Classification of Symmetry Operators

Dimension of the Operator

Based on
Classification based on the dimension invariant entity of the symmetry operator
Operator

Dimension

Inversion

0D

Rotation

1D

Mirror

2D
Lower dimensional space

Classification of Symmetry Operators

Takes an object to its mirror form or not

Based on

Takes object to same form Proper

Type I

Symmetries
Type II
Takes object to enantiomorphic form improper
(Mirror image form)

Note that right and left

handed are not defined for
points, but only for objects.

Translation
Rotation
Mirror

Rotoreflection

Inversion

Rotoinversion

Classification of Symmetry Operators

If it plays a role in the shape of a crystal or not

(Macroscopic/Microscopic)

Based on

Rotation
Influence the external shape of the crystal

Macroscopic

Symmetries
Microscopic
Do not Influence the external shape of the crystal

Mirror
Inversion
Screw Axes
Glide Reflection

Classification of Symmetry Operators

Based on

If the operator acts at a point or moves a point

Points remain localized and we land
up with a
finite number of points

Rotation
Roto-reflection

Mirror
Roto-inversion

Does not move a point

Symmetries

Inversion

(i.e. outside a unit cell)

Moves a point

Translation
Screw Axes

Points move to create an

infinite array

Glide Reflection

Notation for representing left and right handed objects

To start with we use the notation as described below. (Occasionally deviating from this as well!).
Ultimately, we will turn to International Tables of Crystallography symbols in b/w.
+R
R
+L
L

Translation
The translation symmetry operator (t) moves an point or an object by a displacement t or a
distance t.
A periodic array of points or objects is said to posses translational symmetry.
Translational symmetry could be in 2D or 3D (or in general nD).
If we have translational symmetry in a pattern then instead of describing the entire pattern
we can describe the repeat unit and the translation vector(s).

Note: symmetry operators act on

entire space, but shown here as
acting on a point or an object

Start with one point and we get number of points

Order of a symmetry operator

We have seen that a symmetry operator acts on a point or object to create multiple copies.
If the symmetry operator does not involve translation, then the set of points/objects
generated reside locally, with at least one point remaining unmoved.
Since a symmetry operator closes space on itself, it leaves finite set of points/objects
(starting with one point/object).
The number of such distinct points/objects generated is the order of the point group.
Higher the order of a symmetry operator (or point group as we shall see), higher is it
symmetry.
Using the order of the point group as a parameter we can order the symmetry operators (or
point groups) in a decreasing (or increasing order).

Mirror and Inversion With note on left and right handed objects

Note all mirrors used are double sided mirrors

(reflect from both sides)

The left hand of a human being cannot be superimposed on the right hand by mere
translations and rotations
The left hand is related to the right hand by a mirror symmetry operation (m) (or the inversion as below).
The right hand is called the enantiomorphic form of the left hand
Another operator which takes objects to enantiomorphic forms is the inversion operator (i)
(in the figure to the right below- between the two hands (in the mid-plane) at the centre is an inversion operator)`

Inversion operator

Vertical Mirror

Horizontal Mirror

Rotation Axis
Rotation axis rotates a general point (and hence entire space) around the axis by a certain
angle
On repeated operation (rotation) the starting point leaves a set of identity-points* before
coming into coincidence with itself.
As we are interested mainly with crystals, we are interested in those rotations axes which
are compatible with translational symmetry these are the (1), 2, 3, 4, 6 fold axis.

If an object come into self-coincidence through smallest non-zero rotation

angle of then it is said to have an n-fold rotation axis where:

3600
n

The
Therotations
rotationscompatible
compatiblewith
withtranslational
translationalsymmetry
symmetryare
are(1,
(1,2,2,3,3,4,4,6)
6)
Click here for proof

Crystals can only have 1, 2, 3, 4 or 6 fold symmetry

* explained in an upcoming slide

Symbol for 2-fold axis

=180

n=2

2-fold rotation axis

Then the operation of the 2-fold

leaves two points

Two identity points hence

the order of the point
group is 2
Symbol for 3-fold axis

=120

n=3

Three identity points

hence the order of the
point group is 3

3-fold rotation axis

3600
n

=90

=60

n=4

n=6

4-fold rotation axis

6-fold rotation axis

Putting together two symmetry operators

Symmetry operators can be put together in two ways: (i) in combination, (ii) as a
compound.
In a combination the individuality of the symmetry operators is not lost.
In a compound two symmetry operators perform as-if they are a single operator (their
individuality is not fully expressed).
The component operations express themselves and should be compatible with lattice translation

Combination
How can symmetry
operators be put together?
Compound
Two symmetry operations performed in sequence as a single event identity of the individual operators lost

Ways of putting
together symmetry
operators

Compound Symmetry Operators

We have so far considered: Translation, mirror, inversion & rotation operators. These are
simple symmetry operators.
Roto-inversion and Roto-reflection are compound symmetry operators which do not
involve translation both these take left handed objects to right handed forms
For generating point groups (to be considered later) one of the two operators is sufficient and
hence we will consider roto-inversion only in future considerations.
Glide reflection and Screw are compound symmetry operators involving translation
(Only) Glide reflection takes left handed objects to right handed form
It is important to note in these operations the complete compound operator acts before
leaving a identity-point (i.e. Roto-inversion is NOT rotation followed by a inversion).
In some cases these compound operators can be broken down into a combination of two
operators.
In a combination (unlike a compound) the individual operators express themselves fully
i.e. the first operator acts first and then the second acts on the result of the first operation.

Compound symmetry operator

Roto-inversion

A roto-inversion operator rotates a point/object and then inverts it (inversion operation) in

one go.
A left handed object will be taken to its right handed form by the operation.
We will only consider 1,2,3,4,6 - fold rotations (crystallographic) as a part of the rotoinversion operation.
Note that some of the operators can be decomposed (e.g. 1 i, 2 1/m, 3 3.i), But one
of them is unique and cannot be decomposed (4).

1, 2, 3, 4, 6

Roto-inversion operations
Compatible with translational symmetry

The order in which the objects

are generated are labeled 1-6

1
2
6

4
3
4

One right handed object

and one left handed
hence the order of the
point group is 2.

Screw Axis

Compound symmetry operator

A screw (axis) operator rotates a point/object and then moves it a fraction of the repeat
distance in one go.
The faction which the screw axes move is called the Pitch of the screw.
We will only consider (1, 2, 3, 4, 6) - fold rotations (crystallographic) as a part of the screw
axes.
The screw axes to be considered are:
21 31 , 32 41 , 42 , 43 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65
The normal and screw axis both give the same effect on the external symmetry of the
crystal.
All identity points have the same enantiomorphic form (i.e. all objects created by the screw operator
are all either left-handed or all are right-handed).

 The 32 axis produces a rotation of

120 along with a translation of 2/3.
The set of points generated are:
(0,0)
(120,2/3)
Note: these are not
(240,4/31/3) fraction calculations!
(360,6/32)
This is equivalent to a left handed
screw (LHS) of pitch 1/3

 The 43 axis is a RHS with a pitch of

3/4
The set of points generated are:
(0,0)
(90,3/4)
Note: these are not
(180,6/42/41/2) fraction calculations!
(270,9/41/4)
The effect of 43 axis can be thought
of as a LHS with a pitch of 1/4

 The 42 axis generates the following set of points:

(0,0)
(90,1/2)
(180,2/21)
Note: these are not
fraction calculations!
(270,3/21/2)
(360,4/22)
The grey arrowhead maps the
(270,3/2) point to (270,1/2)
to keep points within unit cell

Compound symmetry operator

Glide Reflection

A glide (reflection) operator move a point/object by a fraction of the repeat distance and
reflects the object in one go.
Kinds of Glides are considered in crystallography:
Axial Glide (a, b, c)
Diagonal Glide (n)
Diamond Glide (d)

ar
2
r r
a b
2r
r
a b
4

r
b
2

r
c
2
r r
b c
2
r r
b c
4

r r
c a
2
r r
c a
4

Different type of glides

Complete set of symmetry operators

1 i
2

3 numbers each

1
m

Point Groups and Space Groups

We have so far considered various types of symmetry operators- those with translation and
those without (keeping our focus on those related to crystals).
The symmetry operators without translation (rotation, inversion, mirror, roto-inversion, rotoreflection) leave a finite number of identity-points and even those involving translation
(glide and screw) leave a finite number of identity-points within the unit cell.
Symmetry operators which do not involve translation can combine with one another in
certain specific ways so as to leave a finite number
identity-points
(i.e. arbitrary
Leave atofleast
one
combinations are not possible).
point unmoved
The number of such possible combinations (along with single symmetry operators) is 32
and these are called the 32 Point Groups.
One such combination is 4mm*
An example of a disallowed combination is 22 (with an included angle of (say) 15)*.

There are 7 distinct point group symmetries of lattices (14 Bravais Lattices) which
correspond to the 7 Crystal Systems.
When all symmetry elements are allowed to combine- including those with translation- then
we end up with 230 space groups.
There are 14 distinct space group symmetries of Lattices the 14 Bravais Lattices

* Considered in upcoming slides

We shall not formally derive the 32 point groups or the 230 space groups- interested readers may consult Elementary Crystallography
by M.J. Buerger

Allowed combinations
As mentioned before only some combinations of symmetry operators are allowed.
4mm is an allowed combination (as below) provided that the two mirrors are at 45 and the line of
intersection of the mirror is the line of the 4-fold axis. When ever we write a symbol for a combination
(according to the HermannMauguin notation)- the symbol has a precise meaning w.r.t to the relative
orientation of the component operators.
As shown below 2-fold axes with an included angle of 30 is an allowed combination leading to point
group 622 Starting with just the two 2-fold axes- by repeated action of the two folds twelve 2-fold
axes are created which automatically implies that a 6-fold is perpendicular to the two 2-folds!
Active 2-fold is in red
622

4mm

Right Handed
Left Handed

The 2-folds have been

coloured differently to
understand the origin of the
6-fold

622

Disallowed combinations
Most of the possible combinations of symmetry elements are actually disallowed! If we randomly chose
two rotation axes and put them at some random angle- more likely than not that would be a disallowed
combination (note that there are only 22 allowed combinations along with the single operators (10 in
number) we get the 32 point groups)
As shown below two 2-fold axis with an included angle of (say) 15 is a disallowed combination this
is because the presence of two 2-folds with an included angle of 15 implies the presence of a 12 fold
perpendicular to the plane of the 2-folds which is a disallowed rotational symmetry in
crystallography.
Another example of a combination which is disallowed is (say) two 2-fold axes with an included angle
of 7 (360 is not divisible by 7!). In this case: the action of one two fold on the other repeatedly, would lead to
an infinite number of two folds on the plane and hence an infinite number of points (if we start with one
point) (i.e. space would not close on itself!).

Minimum set of symmetry operators required to create point groups

Though there are a number of symmetry operators, we have already seen a redundancy in
their combined action. E.g. 6 (six bar)= 3/m.
This raises the question: what is the minimum number of symmetry operators required to
create all possible combinations (i.e. the 32 point groups)?
The answer is we can create all the 32 point groups using Only Rotations and Rotoinversions (pure and combinations)! (As in the table below).

R Rotation
R Roto-inversion

1, 2,3, 4, 6
1, 2, 3, 4, 6

32 Point Groups

Point group symmetry

of Lattices 7
The 7 crystal systems

Symmetries acting
at a point

R R

32 point groups

Along with symmetries

having a translation
G + S

230 space groups

Space group symmetry of

Lattices 14
The 14 Bravais lattices

R + R rotations compatible with translational symmetry (1, 2, 3, 4, 6)

The 32 Point Groups

The possible combinations of crystallographic symmetry operators

Highest symmetry
class is in blue

Note the presence

of rotation, rotoinversion & mirror

Point groups on Blue are Holohedral symmetry classes (highest symmetry for a crystal system)
these 7 point groups are the only possible symmetries of lattices

Identity Points/Objects
If we start with a general point, then the operation of symmetry operator(s) will leave a
(finite) set of points. These symmetrically related set of points are called identity points.
An extension of the concept of Identity points is to use identity objects which can show
left or right handedness. (Some examples are shown below).
The number of identity points is the Order of the symmetry operator or the point group and
is a measure of the symmetry of the point group (/operator).
Alternate
diagram

4-fold leaves 4 identity

points

4mm

4mm

Right Handed
Left Handed

Right Handed
Left Handed

4mm point group leaves 8 identity points:

4 left handed (orange circle) and 4 right
handed (green circle)

Concept of Sub-group
A point group of higher symmetry may contain within it the operations of one of more
point group(s) of lower symmetry. The lower symmetry point group(s) are called
Subgroup(s) of the higher symmetry point group.
E.g.
the 4 point group contains the operations of 2 point group
the 4mm point group contains the operations of the point groups 4, 2, m
4mm
4-fold contains 2-fold

m
Click here to know more

How do we go from a space group to a crystal?

Why
Why space
space groups
groups at
at all?
all? Why
Why not
not work
work with
with Lattice
Lattice ++ Motif
Motif picture?
picture?

Click here

The Space Group gives us a distribution of symmetry elements in space.

(Given this distribution some points in space have a higher symmetry than others.)
If the Asymmetric Unit is used as a tile, then this tile in conjunction with the space group can fill entire
space. Like unit cell (as a tile) in conjunction with basis vectors can fill entire space.
Wyckoff Positions for atomic species distribute (put) the atomic entities with respect to the symmetry
operators.
Wyckoff positions specify Site Symmetry and Occupancy by entities (usually atomic species)
Further values for variables in Wyckoff table (x,y,z) have to be specified.
Obviously there is no Scale in symmetry related stuff scale has to be added in via the Lattice
Parameters (Unit Cell Parameters Lengths and Angles consistent with the space group).

Making a Crystal

Space Group
+
Asymmetric Unit

Wyckoff Positions
Site symmetry, Values for
variables & Occupancy

Lattice Parameters
Consistent with the crystal
system

Asymmetric Unit is that part of the crystal which cannot be generated using symmetry
operators

Positioning a object with respect to the symmetry elements

In this part we briefly consider the effect of positioning an object with respect to the distribution of
symmetry elements

As seen in the example of 4mm point group- placing an object in special positions reduces
the number of identity-points/objects produced by the point group.

General site
8 identity-points (4R, 4L)

On mirror plane (m1)

4 identity-points

On mirror plane (m2)

4 identity-points

Object has to have mirror symmetry

(bilateral symmetry)

Note: this is for a point group and not for a lattice the black lines are not unit cells

Site symmetry 4mm

1 identity-point

Positioning a object with respect to the symmetry elements

So it is clear that merely specifying the symmetry operations (along with their distribution)
is not sufficient to generate a pattern. We have to know where the entity (say atoms) are
positioned with respect to the symmetry operators in the unit cell.
It is also clear that if an object is placed on a (or a combination of) symmetry operator(s), it
has to be compatible with the symmetry operator(s).
E.g. a left handed object cannot be placed on a mirror plane or
a rectangular object cannot be placed on a 4 fold axis or
a square can be placed on a 4mm site only if the diagonal of the square coincides
with a mirror
This positioning also determines the number of such entities within the unit cell
called the Multiplicity.
Higher the site symmetry lower will be the number of entities in the unit cell
Wyckoff had developed a notation to label the symmetry positions
Each site (with a certain symmetry) is labeled with a alphabet.
The labeling starts with the highest symmetry sites (a for highest symmetry, then b )
Many different sites with differing symmetry may have the same multiplicity
but they will have different Wyckoff labels.

Positioning of a motif w.r.t to the symmetry elements of a lattice Wyckoff positions

A 2D lattice with symmetry elements

4mm

e
b

d
c

Coordinates
(-x,-y)

(-y,x)

(y,-x)

(-x,y)

(x,-y)

(y,x)

((-y,-x)

..m

(x,x)

(-x,-x)

(x,-x)

(-x,x)

.m.

(x,)

(-x, )

(,x)

(,-x)

.m.

(x,0)

(-x,0)

(0,x)

(0,-x)

2mm.

(,0)

(0,)

4mm

(,)

4mm

(0,0)

Points

Number of
Identi-points

Site
symmetry
(x,y)

Lines

Wyckoff
letter

Area

Multiplicity

Any site of lower symmetry should exclude site(s) of higher

symmetry [e.g. (x,x) in site f cannot take values (0,0) or (, )]

 Within a line or a region special points/lines of higher symmetry

have to be excluded.

e
b

d
a

Exclude these
points

Exclude these
points

Exclude these
points

Solved
Example

Identify the 2D space group (plane group) of the crystal below. What is the
Wyckoff symbol for each of the species? What is the Stoichiometry of the crystal?
A
B
C

Unit cell

Looking at the space group table we

can see that it matches with p4mm
space group.

First we overlay the symmetry operators

Stoichiometry by inspection and by

the Wyckoff symbols is A1 B1 C4
Wyckoff
Site
position Symmetry

Wyckoff
position

Coordinates

Site
Symmetry

1a

(0,0)

4mm

1b

(, )

4mm

4f

(x,x), (x, x), ( x,x), (x, x)

..m

Occ.

Occupancy

1a

4mm

1b

4mm

4f

..m

0.75

Asymmetric unit

Can we have fractional numbers for

Wyckoff occupancy?

Slide 15

Effect of decoration of a lattice on the symmetry

We briefly consider this aspect here- details can be found in the topics on
Geometry of Crystals and Making Crystals.
An Infinite Lattice can be represented by a Unit Cell.
On decorating the lattice with objects the symmetry of the lattice may be:
Maintained
lowered
A special type of object (/collection of objects), which is repeated identically (in shape,
orientation colour etc.) at each lattice point is called a Motif.

 Consider a square (which could also function as a unit cell of a crystal if decorated with a
motif)
The square shape (and also the collection of four points in the corners of a square) have
some basic symmetries as shown below

Complete set
of symmetries

i
Square
Symmetries

Which can be
written as

4 m1 m2 i

4-fold

4 points at the vertices

of a square

mv = m1

md = m2

Which can be
further abbreviated
as

4mm

Effect of the decoration a 2D example

Two kinds of decoration are shown
(i) for an isolated object, (ii) an object which can be an unit cell.

4mm

Redundant
mirrors
which need
not be drawn

Redundant inversion centre

Can be a unit cell for a 2D crystal

4mm
Decoration retaining the symmetry

This is not a Motif as it

is not repeated
identically at each point

Motif

mm

Possible UCs
of Crystals

Motifs

No symmetry
This is a Crystal

If this is an unit cell of a crystal

then the crystal would still
have translational symmetry

This is Amorphous!!

Motif: object with no symmetry

Amorphous

Not a Motif (as repeated at random orientations)

Lattices have the highest symmetry

(Which is allowed for it)
Crystals based on the lattice
can have lower symmetry

Amorphous arrangement
No unit cell

Unit cell of
Triclinic crystal

Symmetry of lattices the 7 crystal systems

Funda Check

Why 7 crystal systems?

As we have seen lattices have the highest symmetry and crystals based on these can have
lower symmetry.
If we consider lattices in conjunction with point groups, then out of the 32 only 7 point
groups survive these correspond to the 7 crystal systems. (See example below).
Another way of looking at this is there are 14 Bravais lattices, these have 7 distinct
symmetries these are the 7 crystal systems. (See example below).
4 2

Similarly crystals with 23, 43m, m 3, 432 & 3

m m

4 2
symmetries will be built on lattices with 3 symmetry
m m
Out of the 32 only 7 such point group
symmetries will survive

Crystal has 4mm

symmetry

Lattice has
4/m 2/m 2/m symmetry

Funda Check In crystallography when we talk of Symmetry, Symmetry of Which entity are we referring to?
The symmetry being referred to could be for one of the following entities

Lattice
Motif
Symmetry of the
Crystal
Unit Cell
Eumorphic crystal (equilibrium shape and
growth shape of the crystal)
The shape of the crystal corresponds to the point
group symmetry of the crystal

The most important of the lot is the symmetry of the crystal!

Funda Check How much information is present in the Herman-Mauguin symbol?

In the Herman-Mauguin notation, symmetry of structures is represented by a symbol.

E.g. 4 (for a pure operator), 63 (for a compound operator), 4mm (for a combination of
operators/point group symbol), I212121 (space group symbol).
It is important to note that like any other symbol (say H 2O) the Herman-Mauguin symbols
give some information but not all the information required.
In the symbol H2O for instance the H-O-H bond angle is not specified. Similarly in the
symbol I 4/m 3 2/m, the location of these operators in the lattice/crystal, their relative
orientation, etc. are not specified in the symbol and one has to refer to the International
Tables of Crystallography understand all aspects of the symbol.

Solved
Example

What is the asymmetric unit for the space group: 4/m 2/m 2/m

Asymmetric unit is that part of space, which when operated by the space group symmetry
gives entire space (becomes space filling on the operation of space group symmetry)
Unique 4-fold implies that this belongs to the tetragonal crystal system.
The order of the group 4/m 2/m 2/m is 48.
This space group has no operators involving translation (glide or screw).
This implies that the asymmetric unit is 1/48 the unit cell (shown in green below)

0 x

;0 y

;0 z

;x y