MOSQUITOES

If you would see all of Nature gathered

up at one point, in all her loveliness,
and her skill, and her deadliness, and
her sex, where would you find a more
exquisite symbol than the mosquito?
-- Havelock Ellis, 1920

HISTORY

Ancient Rome
Scotland
Middle ages and Henry II
Ancient India and Mesopotamia
Ancient China
Egypt
Alexander the Great 323 B.C.
Genghis Khan and Western
Europe

Alexander The
Great
General, King,
Ruler
Babylon 323 B.C.
Malaria?
WNV?
Typhoid?

European Exploration
European exploration of new
lands.
Defensive and Offensive
diseases.
Offensive germs in the New
World.
Indigenous destruction
Slave trade
1890s and beyond

The Family Culicidae - Mosquitoes

Worldwide distribution
> 3450 species and subspecies (38 genera)
Great habitat diversity
Approximately 40 million years older than humans
(fossils from Eocene, 38-54 mya)
Anophelinae (subfamily) - Anopheles (genus)
Culicinae (subfamily) - Aedes, Culex, Haemagogus,
Mansonia, Ochlerotatus and all other genera

Mosquito Characteristics
Conspicuous proboscis - forward projecting
Scales on thorax, abdomen, legs & wing veins
A fringe of scales along the posterior margin of
the wings

Mosquito Characteristics (note

conspicuous forward projecting
proboscis)

Non-biting Gnat (note proboscis

curved under head)

Gnat

Mosquito

Mosquito Characteristics
Bloodfeeding - only females take blood
Males and females feed on plant sugars
Gonotrophic cycle - feed, egg development,
oviposition (half-gravid, gravid)
Egg biology - oviposition location, type of egg,
desiccation resistance, diapause
Larval biology - aquatic, spiracle for breathing,
filter-feeders, some cannibalistic, variable habitats

(1) Eggs 3 strategies

Singly on water surface
Anopheles

Singly in a pile, on moist substrates

Aedes/Ochlerotatus

Form of a raft, on water surface

Culex
Culiseta

Mosquito eggs:
Culex egg raft
Anopheles egg
with floats
Aedes egg

Patterns on the
external egg
surface are
species specific

Egg stage comparison

CULEX Egg Raft

(2) Embryonation 2 options

Eggs hatch immediately (not all)
OR
Diapause required
Triggered by decreasing day length.

**Egg stage over wintering stage**

Aedes/Ochlerotatus

(3) Larval Stage Growth Stage

Larval instars (4)
Aquatic, Filter feeders
Respiration

Anopheles

(4) Pupa Lighter than water

Non-feeding
Respiration
Pupal Stage Comparison

Anopheline

Culicine

Mosquito Pupa and Larvae

Anopheles Pupa and Larvae

Mosquito Emerging
from Pupal Exuvia

(5) Adults
Emergence
Mating
Feeding

Adult Stage Comparison

Anopheline

Culicine

females

Culicine
Anopheline

males

Comparison of
male and
female
Anophelines
vs. Culicines

Behavior
Activity
Host Specificity
Zoophilous
Anthropophilous
Ornithophilous

HABITAT

Medical Importance
Biting Nuisance (annoyance)
Arboviruses
Numerous (Yellow Fever, Dengue Fever,
WNV, JE, SLE, EEE, WEE, VEE).

Filariasis
Bancroftian and Brugian filariasis.

Malaria
4 plasmodium species

Malaria History
Ronald Ross (1897)
Malaria Eradication?
Between 350 and 500 million clinical
episodes of malaria occur every year.
1-2 million deaths occur every year.
About 60% of the cases of malaria
worldwide and more than 80% of the
malaria deaths worldwide occur in Africa
south of the Sahara.

HUMAN MALARIA
Parasite Plasmodium spp.
P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malaria, P. ovale

Vector Anopheles spp.

Host
Reservoir
Distribution

Anopheles
gambiae

WHO/TDR/HOLT Studios,
1992

Global Distribution

Distribution
Distribution Model

Distribution
Endemic /
Epidemic Risk
Areas

Distribution
Duration of Malaria
Transmission Season.

Distribution
Start / End of Transmission Season

Distribution
Population
Distribution

Filariasis History

Patrick Manson (1877)

Worked in Taiwan
Autopsies in China
Threadlike worms

Nothing walks with

aimless feet.:

Mosquito-Borne Human
Filariasis
250 million infections each year
2-3 million cases of obstructive filariasis
20% of pop in Calcutta infected
2 diseases that affect humans
Urban Disease
Rural Disease

Urban and Rural Disease

Urban Disease (Bancroftian filariasis)
Parasite
An anthroponosis
Bancroftia

Rural Disease (Brugian filariasis)

Parasite
An anthroponosis or zoonosis
Brugian

Transmission
(1) Microfilariae in
blood.
(2)
(3) Microfil. Penetrate
midgut thoracic
muscles.
(4)
(5) Enter new host.

Periodicity
(1) Periodic
Infection
(2) Subperiodic
Infection

VECTORS
(1) Bancroftian Filariasis

Cx. pipiens quinquefasciatis

Cx. pipiens pipiens
Anopheles spp.
Aedes spp.

(2) Brugian Filariasis

Anopheles spp.
Aedes spp.
Mansonia (genus)

DISTRIBUTION
Tropics and subtropics
Wuchereria bancrofti is encountered in
_________________.
Brugia malayi is limited to _____.
Dog Heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis, D.
repens)

Mosquito Arboviruses
Intrinsic incubation
period of a virus in
humans is a few days.
Host becomes viraemic.
Viraemia lasts typically 3
days then disappears
from the peripheral
blood.
An arthropod must bite a
viraemic host if it is to
become infected.

Yellow Fever History

Yellow Fever

Brought to U.S. via slave trade.

Aedes aegypti
Originally in New World Monkey populations
Jungle Yellow fever (3-factor disease in monkeys)
New World people bring to town
Old World mooting monkeys bring to town.
Does occasionally occur in U.S.
1964 Eradication program (U.S. Public Health)

YELLOW FEVER
Is a _______
Prevented the building of
the Panama Canal.
Pathogen:
Vector: Aedes aegypti,
Aedes spp., Haemagogus
Host:

Reservoir
Human-mosquito in urban cycle,
Monkey-mosquito in forest cycle;
Deforestation may force infected monkeys
into areas where human-mosquito
transmission can occur.

African Yellow Fever

Transmission Cycle
Vectors:
Vectors
Ae. Africanus (sylvatic)
Ae. Bromeliae (rural)
Ae. Aegypti (urban)

Transovarial
Transmission

Central and South America

Yellow Fever Transmission
Cycle
Vectors:
Vectors

Haemagogus spp. (jungle)

Haemagogus spp. (rural)
Ae. Aegypti (urban)

Transovarial
Transmission

Distribution

Diagnosis and Symptoms

Most infections are mild, but the disease can cause
severe, life-threatening illness.
Symptoms of severe infection are high fever, chills,
headache, muscle aches, vomiting, and backache.
After a brief recovery period, the infection can lead to
shock, bleeding, and kidney and liver failure. Liver
failure causes jaundice (yellowing of the skin and the
whites of the eyes).
Diagnosed by blood test.

Prevention and Treatment

General precautions to avoid mosquito bites; the use of
insect repellent, protective clothing, and mosquito
netting.
Yellow fever vaccine has been used for several
decades. A single dose has a lasting immunity of 10
years or more. (Live virus vaccine)
Booster dose is given every 10 years as needed.
Treatment: No real treatment, drink plenty of fluids,
keep away from mosquitoes to protect others, most
people get better over a long recovery period.

Dengue Fever History

Dengue (Breakbone) Fever

Dengue has four
serological types
(DEN-1,DEN-2,DEN-3
and DEN-4).
Pathogen:

Host:
Reservoir:

VECTORS
Aedes aegypti (Yellow fever Mosquito)
Aedes albopictus (Asian Tiger Mosquito)
Aedes scutellaris
Aedes polynesiensis

Transmission Cycle
Blood meal from
viremic human.
Midgut replication
Salivary glands, pass
on during feeding.
Transovarial
transmission
SE Asia monkey
cycle

Replication and Transmission

of Dengue Virus (Part 1)
1. Virus transmitted to human
in mosquito saliva

2. Virus replicates
in target organs

3. Virus infects white

blood cells and
lymphatic tissues

4. Virus released and

circulates in
blood

2
3

Replication and Transmission

of Dengue Virus (Part 2)
5. Second mosquito

ingests virus with blood

6. Virus replicates
in mosquito midgut
and other organs,
infects salivary
glands

7. Virus replicates
in salivary
glands

7
5

Distribution

Recent Dengue in the U.S.A.

(Texas)
Dengue epidemics occurred in the USA in the 1800s and the first half of the 1900s.
Recent indigenous transmission
1980: 23 cases, first locally acquired since 1945
1986: 9 cases
1995: 7 cases
1997: 3 cases
1998: 1 case
1999: 18 cases
Lack of recent transmission likely due to changes in

life-style

Reasons for Dengue

Expansion in the Americas
Extensive vector infestation, with declining vector
control
Unreliable water supply systems
Increasing non-biodegradable containers and poor
solid waste disposal
Increased air travel
Increasing population density in urban areas

Trouble Ahead?
2.5 billion people at risk world-wide
In the Americas, 50-fold increase in reported cases
of DHF (1989-1993 compared to 1984-1988)*
Widespread abundance of Aedes aegypti in at-risk
areas

* Organization of American States, Human Health in the Americas, 1996

Signs and Symptoms

Sudden onset of fever usually high fever,
severe headache, backache, joint pains,
nausea and vomiting, eye pain, and
rash.
Dengue hemorrhagic fever (more severe
form)

Treatment and Prevention

There is no specific medication for treatment of a
dengue infection.
Persons who think they have dengue should use
analgesics (pain relievers) with acetaminophen and
avoid those containing aspirin. They should also rest
and drink plenty of fluids.
General precautions to avoid mosquito bites; the use
of insect repellent, protective clothing, and mosquito
netting.

Eastern Equine Encephalitis

(EEE)
Distribution: Along the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts, from
Canada to Florida.
Disease: fatal disease that predominantly affects
horses.
Reservoir:
Pathogen:

Transmission
Mainly bird/mosquito
cycle.
Man and Horses are
dead-end hosts.

Maintenance VECTOR
Culiseta melanura
The bird cycle
Habitat:

Bridge VECTORS
East and Gulf Coast
Ae. taeniorhynchus,
Ae. sollicitans
Florida
Culex nigripalpis
Inland
Ae. vexans,
Coquillattidia perturbans

Signs and Symptoms

Most people infected with EEE do not become ill
and others may have only a mild influenza-like illness
with fever, headache and sore throat. In rare cases,
infection of the central nervous system can occur,
causing sudden fever, muscle pains and a headache
of increasing severity often followed by seizures and
coma.
About 50% of these human cases are fatal, with young
children and the elderly most at risk.
Symptoms in humans usually occur from 4 to 10 days
after the bite of an infected mosquito.

St. Louis Encephalitis (SLE)

Distribution: West of Mississippi River, Florids, Ohio
River Valley, NJ and NY. Everywhere in the U.S.
except New England area.
Disease: mammals are accidental hosts. It is a more
serious problem for the elderly. We see epidemics of
up to 2000 cases in 10 year cycles.
Reservoir:
Pathogen:

Distribution

Transmission
Bird/mosquito cycle
Humans and
mammals are dead
end hosts.
Transovarial
transmission in lab,
but probably not in
nature.

VECTORS
Culex pipiens pipiens (Northern House)
Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus (Southern House)
Culex nigripalpus
Culex tarsalis

Signs and Symptoms

Mild infections occur without apparent symptoms other
than fever with headache. More severe infection is
marked by headache, high fever, neck stiffness,
stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, occasional
convulsions (especially in infants) and spastic (but
rarely flaccid) paralysis.
There is no specific treatment. Intensive supportive
therapy depending on the individual.

Western Equine
Encephalomyelitis (WEE)
Distribution: Wisconsin, Illinois, all states west of the
Mississippi River valley, not found east of it.
Disease: Human mortality is 1-5%. Woman and
children more severely affected and more likely to
develop neurological disorders. Equine mortality is
high.
Reservoir:
Pathogen:

Transmission
See handout
Humans and horses are dead end hosts.
The rabbit cycle is thought to go in two directions
making them a reservoir.

VECTORS
Culex Tarsalis
Culiseta melanura
Culiseta inornata
WEE-leporidae transmission system
Ochlerotatus dorsalis
Ochlerotatus melanimon

Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms range from mild flu-like illness to frank
encephalitis, coma and death.

Mild to severe neurologic deficits in survivors.

Inapparent infections in up to 11% of humans in

endemic zones.

639 confirmed cases in the U.S. since 1964.

Treatment is supportive.

LaCrosse Encephalitis (LE)

Distribution: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin,
Tennessee. Some in Western U.S, but not common.
Disease: Subclinical or very mild, but like the others
sometimes develops into something more serious.
Mostly children under 16 years of age.
Reservoir:
Pathogen:

Transmission
See handout!
Virus cycles in woodland habitats between the
treehole mosquito (Aedes triseriatus) and vertebrate
hosts (chipmunks, squirrels)

Vector uses artificial containers (tires, buckets, etc.) in

addition to treeholes.

VECTORS
Ochlerotatus triseriatus
Ochlerotatus hendersoni
Aedes dorsalis (Utah).

Signs and Symptoms

Frank encephalitis progressing to seizures, coma;
majority of infections are subclinical or result in mild
illness.

Approximately 70 cases reported per year.

Treatment is supportive.

West Nile Virus (WNV)

Distribution: throughout the United States
Disease: 1999 first case in the U.S., NY.
Reservoir:
Pathogen:
Originated in Africa, is a disease of children there.
Spread from Africa to other parts of the world.

Transmission
Humans and
mammals are
dead end hosts.
Bird/mosquito
cycle.
Virus cycles in
the birds blood
for a few days.

VECTORS
Culex pipiens (East)
Culex tarsalis (West)
Aedes vexans (Amplifyer?)
Several other species that have
shown promise as possible vectors.

Signs and Symptoms

Mostly flu like, but can develop into encephalitis.
About one in 150 people will develop severe illness.
Which include high fever, headache, neck stiffness,
stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, convulsions,
muscle weakness, vision loss, numbness and paralysis.
Children and elderly are most at risk.
Can get via blood transfusions and organ transplants.
Breastmilk CDC had one case reported
There is no specific treatment for WNV infection.

Japanese Encephalitis (JE)

Distribution: Japan, China, Malaysia, Korea and
other areas of South-east Asia, India, and few in
Australia.
Disease: Similar to other encephalitic diseases we
discussed.
Reservoir:
Vector: Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Cx. gelidus, Cx.
vishnui
Pathogen:

Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis

(VEE)
Distribution: Southern U.S. through Central America
to northern parts of South America.
Disease: infection is fatal in horses, but very mild in
humans.
Reservoir:
Vector: Culex spp., Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus,
Psorophora confinnis.
Pathogen:

Mosquito Protection

Mosquito Surveillance

Control
Directed at the Immature Stages
Biological Control
Predators
Pathogens and Parasites
Genetic Control

Mechanical (Environmental) Control

Source Reduction
Environmental Manipulation

Chemical Control

Oils
Paris Green
Insecticides
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs)

Control
Directed at the Adult Stages
Aerosols, Mists and Fogs
Ultra-low-volume applications
Residual house-spraying

Malaria Control
Larval Control
Habitat elimination
Bio, Env, and Chemical

Adult Control
Residual house-spraying
Insecticide-impregnated
bed-nets
Eradication

Malaria Control

RESEARCH

$40 million into research!

DNA, other molecular techniques
Release Programs
Drugs, vaccines
Control
Ecology, Biology, Behavior
Education