PERPINDAHAN PANAS III

Representation of Heat-Transfer Coefficients

Koef PP konveksi biasanya ditulis dalam bentuk
A. bilangan tidak berdimensi
atau
B. persm berdimensi
For example, with a cylinder of diameter D in
cross flow, the local Nusselt number is defined
as
NuD = hD/k,
where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.
The subscript D is important because different a. Counter current flow
characteristic lengths can be used to define Nu.
The average Nusselt number is written
NuD = hD/k
NATURAL
b. Cocurrent flow
CONVECTION
Natural convection occurs when a fluid is in contact with a solid surface
of different temperature. Temperature differences create the density
gradients that drive natural or free convection.

the key dimensionless parameters for natural convection include the

Rayleigh number Rax = Tgx3/ and the Prandtl number Pr = .
The properties appearing in Ra and Pr include the volumetric coefficient of
expansion (K-1); the difference T between the surface (Ts) and free
stream (Te) temperatures (K or C); the acceleration of gravity g(m/s2); a
characteristic dimension x of the surface (m); the kinematic viscosity
(m2s); and the thermal diffusivity (m2s). The volumetric coefficient of
expansion
for an ideal gas is = 1T, where T is absolute temperature.
For a given geometry,
External Natural Flow for Various Geometries
For vertical walls, Churchill and Chu [Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 18, 1323
(1975)] recommend, for laminar and turbulent flow on isothermal,
vertical
walls with height L,
where the fluid properties for Eq. (5-35) and NuL = h L/k are evaluated
at the film temperature Tf = (Ts + Te)/2. This correlation is valid for all
Pr and RaL. For vertical cylinders with boundary layer thickness much
less than their diameter, Eq. (5-35) is applicable. An expression for
uniform heating is available from the same reference.

For laminar and turbulent flow on isothermal, horizontal cylinders of

diameter D, Churchill and Chu [Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 18, 1049
(1975)] recommend
For horizontal flat surfaces, the characteristic dimension for the correlations
is [Goldstein, Sparrow, and Jones, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 16, 1025
1035 (1973)]
where A is the area of the surface and p is the perimeter. With hot surfaces
facing upward, or cold surfaces facing downward [Lloyd and Moran, ASME
Paper 74-WA/HT-66 (1974)],

and for hot surfaces facing downward, or cold surfaces facing upward,
Fluid properties for Eqs. (5-38) to (5-40) should be evaluated at the film
temperature Tf = (Ts + Te)/2.

Simultaneous Heat Transfer by Radiation and Convection

Simultaneous heat transfer by radiation and convection is treated per the
procedure outlined in Examples 1 and 5. A radiative heat-transfer
coefficient hR is defined by (5-12).
Mixed Forced and Natural Convection Natural convection is
commonly assisted or opposed by forced flow. These situations are
discussed, e.g., by Mills (Heat Transfer, 2d ed., Prentice-Hall, 1999, p.
340) and Raithby and Hollands (Chap. 4 of Rohsenow, Hartnett, and Cho,
Handbook of Heat Transfer, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, 1998, p. 4.73).
Enclosed Spaces The rate of heat transfer across an enclosed
space is described in terms of a heat-transfer coefficient based on the
temperature difference between two surfaces:

For rectangular cavities, the plate spacing between the two surfaces L is
the characteristic dimension that defines the Nusselt and Rayleigh
numbers. The temperature difference in the Rayleigh number, Ra L = T
gL3/ is T = TH - TC.
For a horizontal rectangular cavity heated from below, the onset of
advection requires RaL > 1708. Globe and Dropkin [J. Heat Transfer,
81, 2428 (1959)] propose the correlation

All properties in (5-42) are calculated at the average temperature

(TH +TC)/2.
For vertical rectangular cavities of height H and spacing L, with Pr 0.7
(gases) and 40 < H/L < 110, the equation of Shewen et al. [J. Heat
Transfer, 118, 993995 (1996)] is recommended:

All properties in (5-43) are calculated at the average temperature

(TH + TC)/2.
Example 5: Comparison of the Relative Importance of Natural
Convection and Radiation at Room Temperature
Estimate the heat losses by natural convection and radiation for an
undraped person standing in still air. The temperatures of the air,
surrounding surfaces, and skin are 19, 15, and 35C, respectively. The
height and surface area of the person are 1.8 m and 1.8 m2. The emissivity
of the skin is 0.95.
We can estimate the Nusselt number by using (5-35) for a vertical, flat
plate of height L = 1.8 m. The film temperature is (19 + 35)2 = 27C. The
Rayleigh
number, evaluated at the film temperature, is

From (5-35) with Pr = 0.707, the Nusselt number is 240 and the average
heat transfer coefficient due to natural convection is

The radiative heat-transfer coefficient is given by (5-12):

The total rate of heat loss is

At these conditions, radiation is nearly twice as important as natural

convection

FORCED CONVECTION
Forced convection heat transfer is probably the most common mode in the
process industries. Forced flows may be internal or external. This subsection
briefly introduces correlations for estimating heat transfer coefficients for flows
in tubes and ducts; flows across plates, cylinders, and spheres; flows through
tube banks and packed beds; heat transfer to nonevaporating falling films; and
rotating surfaces.
Section 11 introduces several types of heat exchangers, design procedures,
overall heat-transfer coefficients, and mean temperature differences.
Flow in Round Tubes In addition to the Nusselt (NuD = hD/k)
and Prandtl (Pr = ) numbers introduced above, the key dimensionless
parameter for forced convection in round tubes of diameter D is the Reynolds
number Re = GD, where G is the mass velocity G =m . Ac and Ac is the crosssectional area Ac = D2/4. For internal flow in a tube or duct, the heat-transfer
coefficient is defined as
q = h(Ts Tb)
(5-44)
where Tb is the bulk or mean temperature at a given cross section and
Ts is the corresponding surface temperature.
For laminar flow (ReD < 2100) that is fully developed, both hydrodynamically
and thermally, the Nusselt number has a constant value. For a uniform wall
temperature, NuD = 3.66. For a uniform heat flux through the tube wall,
NuD = 4.36. In both cases, the thermal conductivity of the fluid in NuD is
evaluated at Tb. The distance x required for a fully developed laminar velocity
profile is given by [(xD)ReD] 0.05. The distance x required for fully developed
velocity and thermal profiles is obtained from [(x/D)(ReD Pr)] 0.05.

For a constant wall temperature, a fully developed laminar velocity profile,

and a developing thermal profile, the average Nusselt number is
estimated by [Hausen, Allg. Waermetech., 9, 75 (1959)]

For large values of L, Eq. (5-45) approaches NuD = 3.66. Equation (5-45)
also applies to developing velocity and thermal profiles conditions if Pr
>>1. The properties in (5-45) are evaluated at the bulk mean
temperature
For a constant wall temperature with developing laminar velocity and
thermal profiles, the average Nusselt number is approximated by [Sieder
and Tate, Ind. Eng. Chem., 28, 1429 (1936)]

The properties, except for s, are evaluated at the bulk mean

temperature
per (5-46) and 0.48 < Pr < 16,700 and 0.0044 < bs < 9.75.

For fully developed flow in the transition region between laminar and
turbulent flow, and for fully developed turbulent flow, Gnielinskis [Int.
Chem. Eng., 16, 359 (1976)] equation is recommended

where 0.5 < Pr < 105, 2300 < ReD < 106, K = (Prb/Prs)0.11 for liquids
(0.05 < Prb/Prs < 20), and K = (Tb/Ts)0.45 for gases (0.5 < Tb/Ts < 1.5).
The factor K corrects for variable property effects. For smooth tubes,
the Fanning friction factor f is given by

For rough pipes, approximate values of NuD are obtained if f is estimated

by the Moody diagram of Sec. 6. Equation (5-48) is corrected for
entrance effects per (5-53) and Table 5-3. Sieder and Tate [Ind.Eng.
Chem., 28, 1429 (1936)] recommend a simpler but less accurate
equation for fully developed turbulent flow
where 0.7 < Pr < 16,700, ReD < 10,000, and L/D > 10. Equations (5-48)
and (5-50) apply to both constant temperature and uniform heat flux
along the tube. The properties are evaluated at the bulk temperature Tb,
except for s, which is at the temperature of the tube. For L/D greater
than about 10, Eqs. (5-48) and (5-50) provide an estimate of NuD.

In this case, the properties are evaluated at the bulk mean temperature per
(5-46). More complicated and comprehensive predictions of fully developed
turbulent convection are available in Churchill and Zajic [AIChE J., 48, 927
(2002)] and Yu, Ozoe, and Churchill [Chem. Eng. Science, 56, 1781
(2001)].
For fully developed turbulent flow of liquid metals, the Nusselt number
depends on the wall boundary condition. For a constant wall temperature
[Notter and Sleicher, Chem. Eng. Science, 27, 2073 (1972)],
while for a uniform wall heat flux
In both cases the properties are evaluated at Tb and 0.004 < Pr < 0.01
and 104 < ReD < 106. Entrance effects for turbulent flow with simultaneously
developing velocity and thermal profiles can be significant when L/D < 10.
Shah and Bhatti correlated entrance effects for gases (Pr 1) to give an
equation for the average Nusselt number in the entrance region (in Kaka,
Shah, and Aung, eds., Handbook of Single-Phase Convective Heat Transfer,
Chap. 3, Wiley-Interscience, 1987).

where NuD is the fully developed Nusselt number and the constants C
and n are given in Table 5-3 (Ebadian and Dong, Chap. 5 of Rohsenow,
Hartnett, and Cho, Handbook of Heat Transfer, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill,
1998, p. 5.31). The tube entrance configuration determines the values
of C and n as shown in Table 5-3.

Flow in Noncircular Ducts

The length scale in the Nusselt and Reynolds numbers for noncircular
ducts is the hydraulic diameter, Dh = 4Ac/p, where Ac is the crosssectional area for flow and p is the wetted perimeter. Nusselt numbers for
fully developed laminar flow in a variety of noncircular ducts are given by
Mills (Heat Transfer, 2d ed., Prentice-Hall, 1999, p. 307).
For turbulent flows, correlations for round tubes can be used with D
replaced by Dh.
For annular ducts, the accuracy of the Nusselt number given by (5-48) is
improved by the following multiplicative factors [Petukhov and Roizen,
High Temp., 2, 65 (1964)].

where Di and Do are the inner and outer diameters, respectively

Example 6: Turbulent Internal Flow Air at 300 K, 1 bar, and 0.05 kg/s
enters a channel of a plate-type heat exchanger (Mills, Heat Transfer, 2d
ed., Prentice-Hall, 1999) that measures 1 cm wide, 0.5 m high, and 0.8 m
long.
The walls are at 600 K, and the mass flow rate is 0.05 kg/s. The entrance
has a 90 edge. We want to estimate the exit temperature of the air. Our
approach will use (5-48) to estimate the average heat-transfer coefficient,
followed by application of (5-28) to calculate the exit temperature. We
assume ideal gas behavior and an exit temperature of 500 K. The
estimated bulk mean temperature of the air is, by (5-46), 400 K. At this
temperature, the properties of the air are Pr = 0.690, = 2.301 105
kg(ms), k = 0.0338 W(mK), and cp = 1014 J(kgK).
We start by calculating the hydraulic diameter Dh = 4Ac/p. The crosssectional area for flow Ac is 0.005 m2, and the wetted perimeter p is 1.02
m. The hydraulic diameter Dh = 0.01961 m. The Reynolds number is
The flow is in the transition region, and Eqs. (5-49) and (5-48) apply:
f = 0.25(0.790 ln ReDh 1.64)2 = 0.25(0.790 ln 8521 1.64)2 =
0.008235

Entrance effects are included by using (5-53) for an open end, 90 edge

The average heat-transfer coefficient becomes

The exit temperature is calculated from (5-28):

We conclude that our estimated exit temperature of 500 K is too high.

We could repeat the calculations, using fluid properties evaluated at a
revised bulk mean temperature of 375 K.

Coiled Tubes