LOGICAL Reasoning:

deduction
LILETH OCONNORBROWN

Lets recap before we move into

deduction.

Two approaches to writing argument

Classical Structure

The model of argument developed around the work of

Aristotle.(Aristotelian rhetoric)

Presents arguments that are well supported with

sufficient ,relevant evidence that is appropriate for the
rhetorical context
Examines the arguments of opponents and exposes
the fallacies in them in order to reinforce the arguers
position

Aristotle introduced the terms ethos pathos and logos.

Rogerian Structure

Developed by Carl Rogers a

psychologist
An approach to argument that favours
collaboration over an adversarial
approach
Seeks to find consensus, compromise
and common ground

An argument consists of claim and support

A claim is supported by a REASON, that

is, justification for the claim and evidence.
Support is discourse -- either

information or explanation
Support is information or
explanation given as a reason for
your agreement with a claim.

Support contd.
Evidence is also referred to as
support or facts. Unlike claims, facts
are indisputable.
Evidence comes in various forms,
including specific examples, statistics,
data, testimonies, expert opinion
etcetera.

Some Types of Argument

Argument from Deduction

Argument from Induction
-Argument from Cause
-Argument from Analogy
-Argument from Statistics

Arguments have warrants

Warrants:
The assumptions that underlie our
claims beliefs, principles
Sometimes the warrant is unstated
The warrant allows one to make the
connection between the claim and the
support

Examples

Argument: Marcia is really successful. She is only 28

and already owns real estate and two cars.
Claim: Marcia is really successful.
Support: She owns real estate and two cars at 28.
Warrant: Successful people own real estate and cars.

Argument: This woman must be a psychologist; she

understands human nature.
Claim: This woman must be a psychologist.
Support: She understands human nature
Warrant: Psychologists understand human nature

We should not elect Joel as party

leader because he does not have a
degree.

Im not surprised he made the

team. After all, his father is the
principal of this school.
Warrants?

Deductive Reasoning
Argument whose premises claim to
provide grounds for the truth of its
conclusions.
Rests on fundamental truth, values and
beliefs
moves from generally known or
accepted facts to a specific conclusion

Syllogism
A Syllogism contains two premises from
which a third statement, the conclusion, is
inferred.
Premises give us reasons to believe the
conclusion
Syllogisms have:
a. Major premise- global assumption
b. Minor premise- specific claim
c. Conclusion

Categorical Syllogism
All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Socrates is mortal
Substitute letters for the
elements

All men= A
Mortal= B
Socrates=C

If All As are Bs
And All Cs are As
Then All Cs are Bs

A visual representation
all men are mortal
all things mortal

Socrates is a man

men

Socrates
Socrates is mortal

Validity

A deductive argument is valid when the

conclusion follows logically from its
premises.
It refers only to the form or pattern of the
argument.
Validity is not about the content; its
about the logical structure.
The premises support the conclusion

Valid arguments are

logical

All university students are brilliant

Mary is a university student
Mary is brilliant

If all As are Bs
And All Cs are Bs
Then All Cs are As

Some Valid Forms of

Syllogism
All As are Bs
C is not a B
C is not A

No As are Bs
C is an A
C is not a B

Some As are Bs
All Bs are Cs
Some As are Cs

All As are Bs
C is not B
C is not A

A visual representation
all mammals have hair

all things with hair

fish do not have hair

mammals

fish are not mammals

fish

Soundness
An argument may be valid but unsound;
that is, logical, but at least one premise
is false.
Soundness= validity and truth
An argument is sound if it is valid and if
the premises are accepted as true.
Valid argument? Form is good, but are the
premises true?
Examine the following:

A visual representation
All women are bad drivers.
bad drivers

Jean is a woman.

woman

Jean
Jean is a bad driver.

This example is for educational purposes and does not reflect the
opinions of the instructor nor of Moraine Valley Community College.

Soundness contd.
The argument is valid, but the major premise is
not generally accepted as true.
Hence the argument is unsound
VALID BUT FALSE= UNSOUND

Take another look at this argument. Is it sound?

All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Socrates is mortal

Is this sound?
All university students are brilliant
Mary is a university student
Mary is brilliant

If all As are Bs
And All Cs are Bs
Then All Cs are As

Unsound Arguments
Invalid Forms
Fruits have vitamins
This drink has vitamins
This drink is a fruit
No cake is a fruit
A banana is not a cake
A banana is not a fruit

All invalid arguments are unsound

Enthymeme
A truncated syllogism is called an enthymeme
Argument with one of the premises implied
rather than directly stated.
Eg. The youth of the country are obviously
unpatriotic. Most of them didnt bother to vote
in the last elections.
Missing warrant/ premise:
Patriotic people vote in general elections.

Syllogism
Patriotic people vote in general
elections
The youth did not vote in the general
elections
The youth are not patriotic
Is it sound?T superintendent gives special favors to

his family
If invalid and false =unsound ; valid and false= unsound
or valid and sound if premises are accepted as true

Enthymeme

Our government does not care about the

homeless. Despite numerous requests
they have not budgeted for the building
of a much needed shelter.
Claim: Our government does not care
about the homeless.
Support: They have not provided money
to build a shelter.
Missing premise?

Deductive Arguments
TRUE

FALSE

VALID

Sound Arguments
Correct Form
True Premises

Unsound Argument
Correct Form
Untrue Premises

INVALID

Unsound Argument
Incorrect Form
True Premises

Unsound Argument
Incorrect Form
Untrue Premises

Developing Deductive
Arguments

Establish premises that are widely

accepted, those with which your
opponents are likely to agree
So avoid questionable premises
Define abstract terms if used
Support your claim- cite sources
Avoid the non-sequitor fallacy

Deductive arguments are usually

embedded in written and oral
arguments. Note that they are fully
developed.
Examine the deductive argument below,
write the syllogism and analyse the
argument to determine if it is sound.

From: An Argument Against the Anna

Todd Jennings Scholarship
Most people would agree that racism in any form is an evil
to be opposed. The Anna Todd Jennings scholarship is a
subtle but nonetheless dangerous expression of racism. It
explicitly discriminates against African Americans, Asians,
Latinos native Americans and others. By providing a
scholarship for whites only, Anna Jennings frustrates the
aspirations of groups which until recently had been virtually
kept out of the educational mainstream. On this basis
alone students should refuse to apply

NB. Venn diagrams for this lecture were taken from MV Community College
Table from Diestler, S (2009) Becoming a critical thinker

Refuting the Deductive

Argument

Examine the assumptions/ premises

Discredit one/ both
Point out the flaws.
Are the premises based on personal,
religious, philosophical or cultural beliefs that
you do not share? Then interrogate them.
Present alternative ideas values or beliefs
that align with your position on the issue
being discussed.

All motorists who speed deserve a ticket

You were caught speeding
So You deserve the ticket

All human life is valuable and worthy of

protection
An unborn child is a human life
An unborn child deserves protection

How would you refute these ?

CASE STUDY TEST

Note

that the case study will be uploaded to OurVLE and TURNITIN on

Thursday March 10, at 8 am until Friday March 11 at 8am.
Submit your papers on Friday as directed by your instructor.

day March 10 at 12am.

Students are required to submit their typed copy of the answers to their instructor on Tuesday, March 10 between 2:30 and 5pm.

No late tests will be collected.

QUESTIONS??