Individual Differences in

Second Language
Learning

Intelligence

Aptitude

Learning styles

Personality

Motivation and Attitudes

Identity and ethnic group affiliation

Learner beliefs

Age of acquisition
1

The Good Language

Learner

Are there personal characteristics that

make one learner more successful than
another?
In your experience, as an English learner, which
characteristics seem to you most likely to be
associated with success in L2 acquisition?
(Please turn to p. 55 and do the questionnaire)
Then share your opinion with your group
members. Find three most important and three
least important learner characteristics.
2

A good language learner:

a)

is a willing and accurate guesser

b)

tries to get a message across even if specific language

knowledge is lacking

c)

is willing to make mistakes

d)

constantly looks for patterns in the language

e)

practices as often as possible

f)

analyzes his or her own speech and the speech of others

g)

attends to whether his or her performance meets the

standards he or she has learned

h)

enjoys grammar exercises

i)

begins learning in childhood

j)

has an above-average IQ

k)

has good academic skills

l)

has a good self-image and lots of confidence

3

Before looking at
learner characteristics

What problems can you see in the

following statements?

a) Extroverted learners learn a foreign language

more successfully than introverted learners.
b) Low motivation causes low achievement in
English language learning.

Before looking at
learner characteristics

Difficulties in research on learner characteristics

and second language acquisition (SLA):
1)

definition and measurement of variables

e.g., willing to make mistakes

2)

definition and measurement of language

proficiency
literacy/academic skills vs. conversational skills

3)

correlation vs. causal relationship

4)

socio-cultural factors
e.g., power relationship between L1 and L2,
social/cultural identity
5

Intelligence (I)

Intelligence has multiple types:

Traditionally, intelligence refers to the mental

abilities that are measured by an IQ
(intelligence quotient) test. It usually measures
only two types of intelligence: verbal/linguistic
and mathematical/logical intelligence.

There are other types of intelligence such as

spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal
intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence.
6

Multiple Intelligences
(Howard Gardner, 1993)

Linguistic intelligence: speaking, using words, writing,

giving presentations, solving word problems.

Logical-mathematical intelligence: using numbers, logic,

calculations; learning and understanding grammar rules.

Spatial intelligence: drawing, painting, using color, art,

graphics, pictures, maps, and charts.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: muscular coordination,

athletic skill, body language, drama and theater.

Musical intelligence: using music, tones, hearing;

producing the intonation and rhythm of a language.

Interpersonal intelligence: talking with other people,

understanding them, using language to communicate.

Intrapersonal intelligence: self-knowledge, selfconfidence, using language to analyze yourself.

7

Intelligence (II)

Research Findings:
1.

Intelligence, especially measured by verbal IQ

tests, may be a strong factor when it comes to
learning that involves language analysis and rule
learning.

2.

On the other hand, intelligence may play a less

important role in language learning that focuses
more on communication and interaction.

3.

It is important to keep in mind that intelligence

is complex and that a person has many kinds of
abilities and strengths.
8

Aptitude (I)

Aptitude refers to the ability to learn quickly (Carroll,

1991) and is thought to predict success in learning.

It is hypothesized that a learner with high aptitude may

learn with greater ease and speed. (But other learners
may also be successful if they persevere).

Language aptitude tests usually measure the ability to:

1)

identify and memorize new sounds

2)

understand the function of particular words in

sentences

3)

figure out grammatical rules from language samples

4)

memorize new words

9

Aptitude (II)

Research findings:
1)

Early research revealed a substantial relationship between

performance on language aptitude tests and performance
in foreign language learning that was based on grammar
translation or audiolingual methods.

2)

However, performance on language aptitude tests seems

irrelevant to L2 learning with the adoption of a more
communicative approach to teaching.

3)

Successful language learners may not be strong in all of

the components of aptitude. Learners strengths and
weaknesses in the different components may account for
their ability to succeed in different types of instructional
programs.
10

Learning Styles

Learning style refers to an individuals natural,

habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing,
and retaining new information and skills (Reid 1995).

Types of learning styles related to L2 learning:

1.

Perceptual learning styles:

visual, aural/auditory, and haptic (kinesthetic & tactile)

2.

Cognitive learning styles:

field-independent vs. field-dependent

(tendency to see the trees or the forest)
right-brain dominance vs. left-brain dominance

11

Learning Styles

field-independent vs. field-dependent

Heres a puzzle for you. Look at the row of strange
shapes below. Can you find what the message is?

12

Can you find the

hidden pictures?

Learning Styles

field-independent: see things more analytically

field-dependent: see things more holistically

Research findings:

FI is related to classroom language learning that

involves analysis, attention to details, and mastering of
exercise, drills, and other focused activities.

FD is related to the communicative aspects of language

learning that require social outreach, empathy,
perception of other people, and communicative skills.

FI/FD may also prove to be a valuable tool for

differentiating child and adult language acquisition due
to the fact that FI increases as a child matures to
adulthood.
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Learning Styles

right-brain vs. left-brain dominance

The right brain perceives and remembers visual,

tactile, and auditory images. It is more efficient in
processing holistic, integrative, and emotional
information.

The left brain is associated with logical, analytical

thought, with mathematical and linear processing of
information.

Though we all tend to have one hemisphere that is more

dominant, it is important to remember that the left and
right hemispheres need to operate together as a
team.
15

Learning Styles

Research findings and implications:

1)

Every person, student or teacher, has a learning style;

therefore, there is no particular teaching or learning
method that can suit the needs of all learners.

2)

Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although

they are often described as opposites.

3)

Learning styles are value-neutral; that is, no one style

is better than others.

4)

Very little research has examined the interaction

between different learning styles and success in L2
learning; however, students should be encouraged to
stretch their learning styles so that they will be more
empowered in a variety of leaning situations.
16

Personality

There are a number of personality

characteristics that may affect L2 learning,
such as

Extroversion vs. introversion

Inhibition vs. risk-taking

Anxiety

Self-esteem

Empathy
17

Extroversion vs.
Introversion

Are you more extroverted or introverted?

It is often argued that an extroverted person is

well suited to language learning. However,
research does not always support this
conclusion.

Some studies have found that learners

success in language learning is associated with
extroversion such as assertiveness and
adventurousness, while others have found that
many successful language learners do not get
high scores on measures of extroversion.
18

Inhibition vs. risk-taking

It has been suggested that inhibition

discourages risk-taking, which is necessary for
progress in language learning.

Inhibition is often considered to be a particular

problem for adolescents, who are more selfconscious than younger learners.

Inhibition is a negative force, at least for second

language pronunciation performance.

Be aware that inhibition may have more

influence in language performance than in
language learning.
19

Anxiety (I)

Trait Anxiety vs. State Anxiety:

a) Trait anxiety: a more permanent predisposition
to be anxious
b) State anxiety: a type of anxiety experienced in
relation to some particular event or act;
temporary and context-specific

More recent research acknowledges that anxiety

is more likely to be dynamic and dependent on
particular situations and circumstances.

Anxiety can play an important role in L2 learning

if it interferes with the learning process.
20

Anxiety (II)

Debilitative (harmful) Anxiety vs. Facilitative

(helpful) Anxiety: Not all anxiety is bad and a certain
amount of tension can have a positive effect and
facilitate learning.

A learners willingness to communicate has also

been related to anxiety. It is often affected by the
number of people present, the topic of conversation,
and the formality of the circumstances.

Willingness to communicate or state anxiety can

also be affected by learners prior language learning
& use experience, self-confidence, and
communicative competence.
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Conclusions for Personality

In general, the research does not show a single clearlydefined relationship between personality traits and SLA.
1.

The major difficulty is that of identification and

measurement of personality characteristics.

2.

Personality variables may be a major factor only in the

acquisition of conversational skills, not in the
acquisition of literacy or academic skills.

3.

Most research on personality traits has been carried

out within a quantitative research paradigm (i.e., an
approach that relies on measuring learners scores on
personality surveys and relating these to language test
performance). More qualitative research is needed to
adequately capture the depth and complexity of the
relationship.
22

Motivation & Attitudes

Questions:
1.

Do positive attitudes and motivation

produce successful learning or does
successful learning engender positive
attitudes and motivation?

2.

Are there other factors that affect both

attitudes/ motivation and the success of
learning?
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Motivation & Attitudes

Types of motivation
needs):

(in terms of communicative

Intrinsic (Internal)

Extrinsic (External)

Integrative

The learner wishes

to learn L2 for
personal growth and
cultural enrichment.

Someone else (e.g., the

learners parents) wishes
the learner to know L2
for an integrative
reason.

Instrumenta
l

The learner wishes

to achieve more
immediate or
practical goals using
L2 (e.g., for a career).

External power wants

the learner to learn L2
for a practical purpose

Purpose

Source

(e.g., a corporation asks

its staff to get language
training).

Motivation & Attitudes

Research findings:
1)

Both integrative and instrumental types of

motivation are related to success in L2
learning. Most L2 learning situations involve
a mixture of each type of motivation.

2)

Research strongly favors intrinsic motivation,

especially for long-term retention.
Intrinsically motivated learners are striving
for excellence, autonomy, and selfactualization.
25

Motivation & Attitudes

Drnyei (2001) a process-oriented model

of motivation that consists of 3 phases:
1)

choice motivation: getting started and setting

goals

2)

executive motivation: carrying out the

necessary tasks to maintain motivation

3)

motivation retrospection: appraisal of and

reaction to learners performance

26

Motivation in the
Classroom

Motivating students into the lesson. The content

needs to be relevant to their age and level of
ability, and the learning goals need to be
challenging yet manageable and clear.

Varying the activities, tasks, and materials to

increase students interest levels.

Using cooperative rather than competitive goals

to increase students self-confidence.

Cultural and age differences will determine the

most appropriate way for teachers to motivate
students.
27

Identity & Ethnic Affiliation

The social dynamic or power relationship

between L1 and L2:

Minority group members learning the

language of a majority groups may have
different attitudes and motivation from
those of majority group members learning a
minority language.

Think of why an ESL learners and an EFL

learners attitude may differ in motivation
and attitudes.
28

Identity & Ethnic Affiliation

An imbalanced power relationship between L1 and

L2 may limit the opportunities learners have to
practice and to continue to develop the L2.

Identities are not static and can change over time.

Learners identities will impact on what they can
do and how they can participate in classrooms,
which affects how much they can learn.

The relationship between feelings of ethnic

affiliation and L2 learners mastery of
pronunciation can be complex. Learners may want
to speak with a strong foreign accent to
maintain their L1 identity.
29

Learner Beliefs

What is your learner belief? How should

language be learned?

Virtually all learners, particularly older learners,

have strong beliefs about how their language
instruction should be delivered.

Learner beliefs are usually based on previous

learning experiences and the assumption that a
particular type of instruction is better than
others.

Learner beliefs can be strong mediating factors

in learners experience in the classroom.
30

Learner Beliefs

Conclusions:
1)

Learners preference for learning, whether

due to their learning styles or to their beliefs
about how language are learned, will
influence the kinds of strategies they choose
to learn new material.

2)

Teachers can use this information to help

learners expand their repertoire of learning
strategies and thus develop greater flexibility
in their second language learning.
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Age of Acquisition

The relationship between a learners age and his/her

potential for success in second language learning is
complex or controversial.

The relationship needs to take into account

1) the learners cognitive development
2) the learners motivation
3) the learners goal for learning L2 (i.e., in what
aspects of the L2 the learner has achieved)
4) the contexts in which the learner learns L2
(including
quantity & quality of language input,
learning environment, learning time, and sociocultural contexts)
32

Age of Acquisition

Research findings:
1) L2 development in informal language learning
environments where the L2 is used primarily:

Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like

fluency, but their parents and older learners (i.e.,
post-puberty learners) are hard to achieve such high
levels of mastery of the spoken language, especially
in pronunciation/accent.

Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress

toward mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can
make use of the language on a daily basis in social,
personal, professional, or academic interaction.
33

Age of Acquisition

Research findings:
2) L2 development in formal language learning
conditions (i.e., classrooms) where the L1 is used
primarily :

In the early stages of the L2 development, older learners

(adolescents and adults) are more efficient than younger
learners (children).

Learners who began learning an L2 at the elementary school

level did not necessarily do better in the long run than those
who began in early adolescent.

It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain nativelike mastery of the spoken language, including
pronunciation, word choice, and some grammatical features.
34

Age of Acquisition

Conclusions (I):
- At what age should L2 instruction begin?

Those who support critical period hypothesis (CPH):

Younger is better (particularly in the phonological
achievement)

Those who consider that the age factor cannot be

separated from factors such as motivation, social
identity, and the conditions for learning:
Older learners may well speak with an accent because
they want to keep their L1 identity, and the language
input for adults is different from that for children
because they rarely get access to the same quantity and
quality of language input that children receive in play
setting.
35

Age of Acquisition

Conclusions (II):

When the goal is basic communicative ability of the TL,

rather than native-like mastery, and when childrens
native language remains the primary language, it may
be more efficient to begin L2 or FL learning later (e.g.,
in early adolescence at age 10, 11, or 12).

When learners receive only a few hours of instruction

per week, those who start later often catch up with
those who began earlier.

One or two hours a week will not produce very

advanced L2 speakers, no matter how young they were
when they began learning. Older learners may be able
to make better use of the limited leaning time.
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Age of Acquisition

Conclusions (III):

Age is only one of the characteristics which affects

L2 learning.

The opportunities for learning (both inside and

outside the classroom), the motivation to learn, and
individual differences in intelligence, aptitude,
personality, and learning styles have also been
found to be important determining factors that affect
both rate of learning and eventual success in
learning the L2.

37

Summary
1.

The research on individual differences is complex and

the results of the research are not easy to interpret.
This is because of
a)

the lack of clear definitions and methods for measuring

individual characteristics

b)

The fact that the characteristics are not independent of

one another: learner variables interact in complex ways.

2.

It remains difficult to predict how a particular

individuals characteristics will influence his or her
success as a language learner.

3.

Teachers should take learners individual differences into

account and to create a learning environment in which
more learners can be successful in learning an L2.
38