r


i
 


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 V
 
ÿ Define and describe various Linux ë
 and


ÿ Define and analyze process control
ÿ Assign process ë


ÿ Îxplain process    and process 



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 i

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ÿ A ë
  is an executable file, for example: /bin/bash
ÿ A ë
 is an 
 of a program being executed.
Process is also called

ÿ A process may execute more than one program during its
lifetime
ÿ The kernel arranges for each process to have a share of the
CPU and automatically switches from executing one process
to executing another

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 i

  i

ÿ Îvery process has a priority associated with it
ÿ Îach time a context switch is made (i.e., a new process is to
be run) the kernel searches a queue of these processes and
selects the one with the  
ë


ÿ A user or programmer can   a process's ë

 using
the O
or O
 command but

 ë   
 
ë



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 | 
i
V  
ÿ èive types of processes on Linux system:
Daemon
Parent
Child
Orphan
Zombie or defunct

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 -




ÿ Daemon processes are Linux processes that support system
functions. They are normally started up when multi-user mode is
entered at boot time
ÿ The key attribute of a daemon process is the fact that it is not
attached to a terminal; this is shown on a ë listing as a question
mark (?) in the terminal (TTY) column
ÿ Daemons typically Õ


such as a signal, a file being
created, data input from a serial line or network, or a time out.



 

Õ ë  






ë 

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 -




ÿ Zombie processes are those processes that have
finished but the parent process does not clean it up
ÿ The only way to remove zombies in this situation is to
terminate the parent process (see the kill command)
and restart the application

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 X
  
  i

ÿ Îvery process is identified by a unique number, process
ID (PID); and each process has an owner and a group,
the effective UID and GID, that define the processes'
access to the system

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 X
  
  i

ÿ The kernel maintains a large amount of information
about each process :
ÿ i
-i-
A positive integer value that uniquely
identifies the process in the system ,PIDs are allocated in
sequence automatically
ÿ 2    

process's virtual memory
ÿ § 
-

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 r  
i

ÿ Command èormat :
ë ë
O 

Options :
 Print information about   process
on the system.
 Generate a   
.
 Generate a 
 


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 ´
 

§- i-ii- r |2 22
 2 r-

root 1 0 80 16:46:44 ? 0:40 /etc/init

root 2 0 27 16:46:44 ? 0:00 pageout
aster 1292 1 80 06:48:51 console 0:01 -ksh
henry 231 1 80 06:48:51 pts/1 0:01 bash

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 |   
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i

´
    



ïï 
   ë

ï 
  ë

ï

   ë

´
 




ïï  ë

ï  ë

ï
 ë

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ÿ The
ë provides an ongoing look at processor activity in real
time
ÿ It displays a listing of the most CPU-intensive
 on the
system, and can provide an interactive interface for
manipulating processes: sort the tasks by CPU usage, memory
usage, and runtime
ÿ ›oth Gnome and KDÎ have GUI versions of top: 
ë and 
ë
respectively. Users familiar with the Windows Task Manager
will recognize 
ë as a clone of this Windows feature

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 i
i 
 

ÿ When assigning ë

 to a process, the kernel
supplies something called a    . Nice numbers
range from -20 (highest) to +19 (lowest). Processes
started by a user have a nice value of 0

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 O
 r


ÿ The O
 command to modify the nice numbers on processes





ÿ Uegular users can only adjust nice values from 0 to 19, while
super users can adjust nice values from -20 to 19. If no
adjustment value is given, then the process is assigned a
value of 10
ÿ If no commands are specified, then O
 displays the current
scheduling priorities

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 O
 r


ÿ Command format :
O
ë
O 
O
ÿ Îxamples:
ƒO
ïO

ë Set nice number is 2
ƒO
ïO

ë Set nice number is -2
ƒO
OïO

ë Set nice number is -2

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 O
 r


ÿ The O
 command to modify the nice numbers on
processes that     
ÿ There is some syntactical difference between nice and
renice, mainly that renice does not require the use of
two dashes (i.e. ï) to signify a negative nice number

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 O
 r


ÿ Command format :
O
ë

    ë 
 

ÿ Îxamples:
ƒO
ïï Set nice number is -2 to PID=203
ƒO
 O Set nice number is 5 to all
processes started by henry

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 | 
ÿ ardware-related program faults (Divide by zero),
press Ctrl+C, « can cause signals
ÿ System administrators usually  


 ë 
 ë
.
ÿ There are a number of standard signals. You can use
  or O O to list all signals supported
by the system

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 | 
ÿ ( refer to ´O O )

r



SIGUP 1 angup detected on controlling terminal or
death of controlling process
SIGINT 2 Interrupt from keyboard (Ctrl+C pressed)
SIGKILL 9 Kill signal
SIGTÎUM 15 Terminate program


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 Sending Signals to Processes
ÿ The  and ë commands can help you to send
signals to processes

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 w

r


ÿ Provides a direct way to terminate unwanted command
processes
ÿ Command èormat
w



 

ÿ Terminating a Process :
1. Type
 to find out the PIDs for the processes.
2. Type w

followed by the PIDs.

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 i

´
  O
i
    

ïï
O      
ïï ë
    O
ï  ë
   ë

´w



´ w

 i
ö

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ÿ Command èormat

w



 ëë  

ë

 ë
  




 





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   | 

ÿ The shell can register signal handlers using the
ë

command. Traps are used mostly within programs and
scripts:

ë$

O  O



O List of 
), separated by µ;¶ and  


ë 



O List of signal name(s) or signal number(s)

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   | 

ÿ Set traps :
ƒ
ë
 O
ë
 O  
ƒ
ë
 O
ë
 Oï
ƒ
ëï 

ÿ Ueset traps :
ƒ
ëï

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 |  i

ÿ The 
command

ÿ The
O
 command

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 ¦½ r


ÿ Îxecute commands 
ë  
 or run the commands


  .

ë
O !
"!
"
ÿ 
reads commands from
 O or file (with  option) and
executes them using user¶shell
ÿ

and
 of this command   


 
who run the command by default
ÿ ( Îxamples )

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 ¦½ 

ÿ Uun ë
  once at 6:15 p.m tomorrow:
´¦½ 
 ½ 


"ë

"
ÿ The ^D indicates that the user typed Ctrl-D on the
keyboard, sending the end-of-file character to
terminate the at command

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 ¦½ 

ÿ Uun commands that are listed in the file 
 

at 9 p.m. two days from now:

´
G 

 ë#ï

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 „  - ¦½ 



  List jobs, it¶s an alias for 



£
 Uemoves jobs, it¶s an alias for 



 Like 



£
 Like 


ƒ ¦½

$ï   ï

ƒ ¦½  

ƒ ¦½
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 2 
O½¦ r


ÿ Use
O
 to run jobs at ë
  
 
ÿ List cron table with:

O
   
ÿ Îdit the current cron table with:

O
  
ÿ Uemove the cron table with:

O
  

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 crontab èile Structure
ÿ Îach line in in a crontable includes commands and information to determine
when to run the command :
! O
"!"!"!O
"!"!
¦O"
Ü Space/tab separated fields (columns)
Ü Use comma-separated list or range of values in each field

 O
 Minute (0 through 59)

 our (0 through 23)

 Day of the month (1 through 31)

O
 Month (1 through 12 or Jan through Dec)

 Day of the week (0 through 6 [where 0 is Sunday] or sun

through sat)

O Command (any valid command, including spaces and standard
›ourne shell syntax)

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 crontab èile Structure
ÿ èields with µ*¶ will match any values
ÿ Lines that begin with the pound sign (#) are 


  and are ignored by 

ÿ èor more details about file structure:
ƒO 
O


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 crontab èile
ÿ Typically, system administrators use crontab to
 ë
the system (truncate log files, remove out-of-date or
unused files, etc.) and ë 
   
ë 

 such
as file system backups or accounting programs
ÿ Îach user has a personal list of commands kept in the
crontab file, stored in  ë 
O directory

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 Îxamples
ÿ To execute ë
  once per day at 6:15 a.m , use
this 
 entry:

%%%ë

ÿ To execute at 6:15 and 18:15 on the 1st and 15th of

the month, use:

   %%ë

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 Îxamples
ÿ § 
 
 
    
 

%% 
&  O
 


'
ïï%
'(ëë›
 
 %% O ) 
ë
  %%   O O
) 
ë

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  ¦½ 
O½¦

ÿ Control and configuration files are kept in /etc


)  Users allowed to use 


)O Users denied use of 
(only used if no


) )

O)  Users allowed to use
O

O)O Users denied use of
O

O
  System
O table

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  ¦½ 
O½¦
ÿ These files are simply lists of account names.
ÿ If the 
Õ file exists, only those users listed in the 
Õfile may
use the service. If the 
Õ file does not exist but the  file
does, only those users not listed in the  file may use the
service.
ÿ èor 
, if neither file exists, all users have access to 
.
ÿ èor , if neither file exists, only root has access to . An empty

 file allows access to all users and is the default.

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  ¦½ 
O½¦
ÿ All crontabs are stored in the cron spool directory
 ë 
O
ÿ All at jobs are stored in the cron spool directory
 ë 

ÿ Do not edit the files in the spool directories. Use the 

and
O
 utilities to make changes

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 Summary
ÿ Define and describe various Linux ë
 and


ÿ 
ÿ Define and analyze process control
ÿ Assign process ë


ÿ Îxplain process    and process 



|
   
     j