CE 203 : FLUID

MECHANICS II

MODULE I: HYDRAULIC TURBINES

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Unit-1
Impact of jet and turbine

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INTRODCTION TO FLUID
MECHINERY
A fluid machine is a device which converts the energy stored
by a fluid into mechanical energy or vice versa .
The energy stored by a fluid mass appears in the form of

potential,
kinetic
intermolecular energy.

The mechanical energy, on the other hand, is usually

transmitted by a rotating shaft.

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IMPACT ON JET
The liquid comes out in the form of a jet from
the outlet of a nozzle which is fitted to a pipe
through which the liquid is flowing under
pressure.
The following cases of the impact of jet, i.e.
the force exerted by the jet on a plate will be
considered :

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1. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary plate

a) Plate is vertical to the jet
b) Plate is inclined to the jet
c) Plate is curved
2. Force exerted by the jet on a moving plate
a) Plate is vertical to the jet
b) Plate is inclined to the jet
c) Plate is curved

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Force exerted by the jet on a stationary vertical plate

Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle strikes the
vertical plate.
V = velocity of jet,
d = diameter of the jet,
a = area of x section of the jet
The force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of jet:
Fx = Rate of change of momentum in the direction of force
= (initial momentum final momentum / time)

= (mass x initial velocity mass x final velocity / time)

= mass/time (initial velocity final velocity)
= aV (V -0)
=aV2
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Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate

1st Case: Force on flat moving plate in the direction of jet
Consider, a jet of water strikes the flat moving plate
moving with a uniform velocity away from the jet.
V = Velocity of jet
a = area of x-section of jet
U = velocity of flat plate
Relative velocity of jet w.r.t plate = V u
Mass of water striking/ sec on the plate = a(V - u)

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Force exerted by jet on the moving plate in the direction of jet

Fx = Mass of water striking/ sec x [Initial velocity Final
velocity]
= a(V - u) [(V - u) 0]
In this case, work is done by the jet on the plate as the plate is
moving, for stationary plate the work done is zero.
Work done by the jet on the flat moving plate =
Force x Distance in the direction of force/ Time
=
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Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate

1st Case: Force on flat moving plate in the direction of
jet
Consider, a jet of water strikes the flat moving plate
moving with a uniform velocity away from the jet.
V = Velocity of jet
a = area of x-section of jet
U = velocity of flat plate
Relative velocity of jet w.r.t plate = V u
Mass of water striking/ sec on the plate = a(V - u)

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This normal force can be resolved into two components one in

the direction of jet and other perpendicular to the direction of
jet.
Component of Fn in the direction of jet=
Component of Fn in the direction perpendicular to the direction
of jet
work done=

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a(v u ) 2 . sin 2 .u

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IMPULSE TURBINE
The impulse turbine, the pressure change occurred in the nozzle,
where pressure head was converted into kinetic energy.
There was no pressure change in the runner, which had the sole
duty of turning momentum change into torque.
The flow of water is tangential to the runner so it is a tangential
flow impulse turbine.
The speed jet of water hits the bucket on the wheel and cause of
wheel rotate.
A spear rod which has spear shaped end can be moved by hand
wheel.
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Euler's equation

The Euler's equation for steady flow of an ideal fluid along a

streamline of a moving fluid is a relation between
the velocity
pressure
density
It is based on the Newton's Second Law of Motion. The
integration of the equation gives Bernoulli's equation in the form
of energy per unit weight of the following fluid.
It is based on the following assumptions:
The fluid is non-viscous (i,e., the frictional losses are zero).

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Turbines
Hydro electric power is the most remarkable development
pertaining to the exploitation of water resources throughout
the world
Hydroelectric power is developed by hydraulic turbines
which are hydraulic machines.
Turbines convert hydraulic energy or hydro-potential into
mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy developed by turbines is used to run
electric generators coupled to the shaft of turbines
Hydro electric power is the most cheapest source of power
generation.
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Classification of turbines
Based on head and quantity of water
According to head and quantity of water available, the
turbines can be classified into:a) High head turbines
b) Medium head turbines
c) Low head turbines
a) High head turbines
High head turbines are the turbines which work under
heads more than 250m. The quantity of water needed in
case of high head turbines is usually small. The Pelton
turbines are the usual choice for high heads.
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Classification of turbines
Based on head and quantity of water
b) Medium head turbines
The turbines that work under a head of 45m to 250m are
called medium head turbines. It requires medium flow of
water. Francis turbines are used for medium heads.
c) Low head turbines
Turbines which work under a head of less than 45m are
called low head turbines. Owing to low head, large
quantity of water is required. Kaplan turbines are used for
low heads.

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Classification of turbines
Based on hydraulic action of water
According to hydraulic action of water, turbines can be
classified into
a) Impulse turbines
b) Reaction turbines
a) Impulse turbine: If the runner of a turbine rotates by the
impact or impulse action of water, it is an impulse
turbine.
b) Reaction turbine: These turbines work due to reaction of
the pressure difference between the inlet and the outlet
of the runner.
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Classification of turbines
Based on direction of flow of water in the runner
Depending upon the direction of flow through the runner,
following types of turbines are there
a) Tangential flow turbines
b) Radial flow turbines
c) Axial flow turbines
d) Mixed flow turbines

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Classification of turbines
Based on direction of flow of water in the
runner
a) Tangential flow turbines
b) Radial flow turbines
c) Axial flow turbines
d) Mixed flow turbines

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Impulse Turbine:
Impulse turbine works on the basic principle of impulse. When the
jet of water strikes at the turbine blade with full of its speed.
It generates a large force which used to rotate the turbine. The force
is depends on the time interval and velocity of jet strikes the blades.
This turbine used to rotate the generator, which produces electric
power.

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Construction:
Blades:- The number of blades is situated over the rotary. They
are concave in shape. The water jet strikes at the blades and
change the direction of it. The force exerted on blades depends
upon amount of change in direction of jet. So the blades are
generally concave in shape.
Rotor: Rotor which is also known as wheel is situated on the
shaft. All blades are pined into the rotor. The force exerted on
blades passes to the rotor which further rotates the shaft.

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Nozzle:- A nozzle play main role of generating power from

impulse turbine. It is a diverging nozzle which converts all
pressure energy of water into kinetic energy and forms the water
jet. This high speed water strikes the blades and rotates it.
Casing:- Casing is the outside are which prevent the turbine form
atmosphere. The main function of casing is to prevent discharge
the water from vanes to tail race. There is no change in pressure of
water from nozzle to tail race so this turbine works at atmospheric
pressure.
Braking nozzle:-A nozzle is provided in opposite direction of
main nozzle. It is used to slow down or stop the wheel.

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Heads, Losses and Efficiencies of

Hydraulic Turbines
Heads
These are defined as below:
(a) Gross Head: Gross or total head is the difference between
the headrace level and the tail race level when there is no flow.
(b) Net Head: Net head or the effective head is the head
available at the turbine inlet. This is less than the gross head,
by an amount, equal to the friction losses occurring in the flow
passage, from the reservoir to the turbine inlet.

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Losses
Various types of losses that occur in a power plant are given
below:
(a) Head loss in the penstock: This is the friction loss in the
pipe of a penstock.
(b) Head loss in the nozzle: In case of impulse turbines, there
is head loss due to nozzle friction.
(c) Hydraulic losses: In case of impulse turbines, these losses
occur due to blade friction, eddy formation and kinetic energy
of the leaving water. In a reaction turbine, apart from above
losses, losses due to friction in the draft tube and disc friction
also occur.

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(d) Leakage losses: In case of impulse turbines, whole of the water

may not be striking the buckets and therefore some of the water
power may go waste. In a reaction turbine, some of the water may
be passing through the clearance between the casing and the
runner without striking the blades and thus not doing any work.
These losses are called leakage losses.
(e) Mechanical losses: The power produced by the runner is not
available as useful work of the shaft because some power may be
lost in bearing friction as mechanical losses.
f) Generator losses: Due to generator loss, power produced by the
generator is still lesser than the power obtained at the shaft output.

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 Efficiencies
Various types of efficiencies are defined as under:
(a) Hydraulic efficiency: It is the ratio of the power developed
by the runner to the actual power supplied by water to the
runner. It takes into account the hydraulic losses occurring in
the turbine
h = Runner output / Actual power supplied to runner
= Runner output / (.Q.g.H)
Where, Q = Quantity of water actually striking the runner
blades
H = Net head available at the turbine inlet
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(b) Volumetric efficiency: It is the ratio of the actual quantity

of water striking the runner blades to the quantity supplied to
the turbine. It takes into account the volumetric losses.
Let Q = Quantity of water leaking or not striking the
runner blades
v = Q / (Q+ Q)
(c) Mechanical efficiency: The ratio of the shaft output to the
runner output is called the mechanical efficiency and it
accounts for the mechanical losses.
m = Shaft output / Runner output

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(d) Overall efficiency: Ratio of shaft output to the net power available at
the turbine inlet gives overall efficiency of the turbine
m = Shaft output / Net power available

Shaft .output
o
(Q Q ) gH
Shaft.output

Runner.output

Thus
all the three types oflosses, mechanical,hydraulic and volumetric
o
Q Q
Runner
.output
QgH
have been
taken into
account.

o m h v

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Impulse Turbine and velocity triangle ,power and

efficiency

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 The stream is delivered to the wheel at an angle ai and

velocity Vai..
An increase in ai, reduces the value of useful component
(Absolute circumferential Component).
This is also called Inlet Whirl Velocity, Vwi = Vai cos(ai).
An increase in ai, increases the value of axial component,
also called as flow component.
This is responsible for definite mass flow rate between to
successive blade.
Flow component Vfi = Vai sin(ai) = Vri sin(bi).
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e
Vae

Vre

Vai

Vri

Newtons Second Law for an Impulse Blade:

The tangential force acting of the jet is:
F = mass flow rate X Change of velocity in the tangential direction
Tangential relative velocity at blade Inlet : Vri cos(i).
Tangential relative velocity at blade exit : -Vre cos(e).
Change in velocity in tangential direction: -Vre cos(e) - Vri cos(i).
-(Vre cos(e) + Vri cos(i)).
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The reaction to this force provides the driving thrust on

the wheel.

FR mVre cos e Vri cos i

The driving force on wheel

Power Output of the blade,

Pb m U Vre cos e Vri cos i

Diagram Efficiency or Blade efficiency:

Power ouput
d
Kinetic Power of inlet steam

d
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m U Vre cos e Vri cos i

m Vai2
2

35

2U kVri cos e Vri cos i

d
Vai2
2UVri k cos e cos i
d
Vai2
e

Vae

Vre

Vai cos i U Vri cos i

i

e
Vai

Vri

Vai cos i U
Vri
cos i

cos e
2U Vai cos i U k
1
cos i

Vai2

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cos e
2U Vai cos i U k
1
cos i

d
Vai2

U
U
d 2
cos i

V
V
ai
ai

cos
1
k
cos i e

Define Blade Speed Ratio,

cos e
d 2 cos i k
1

cos i
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For a given shape of the blade, the efficiency is a strong

function of
For maximum efficiency:

d d
0
d

cos e
2 cos i 2 k
1 0

cos i
cos i
cos i 2 0
2

d ,max

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cos i
cos e
2 cos i cos i
1
k
2
cos i

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Governing of hydraulic turbine

As turbine is directly coupled to the electric generator which is
required to run at constant sped.
The load on turbine is not constant through out the day or hour,
hence speed of turbine varies with respect to load at constant
head and discharge .
Therefore in order to have constant speed of generator
,governing of turbine is required to maintain the constant speed
of turbine with respect to load.
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Main part for governing of pelton wheel

1
2
3
4

.Centrifugal governor
.Oil pump-gear pump with oil sump
.Relay or control valve
.Servomotor with spear rod and spear

.Deflector mechanism.

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control valve
Relay valve is a spool valve having 5 ports. It is also called as
control valve or distributor valve. It receives the pressurised
oil from the oil pump which is diverted towards the ports to
pipe A or pipe B. Through these pipes the oil is transferred to
corresponding sides of double` acting servomotor cylinder.
Simultaneously, the oil will be returned from the servomotor
from the opposite pipe to the sump.

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Governor and linkages

A centrifugal governor is used as the measuring element of the
closed loop control system. It is driven by the turbine shaft
through bevel gears. The sleeve of the governor is connected
through linkages to relay valve. The movement of is transferred
through the lever to move the piston rod of relay valve.

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Working
Consider the case when the load on the generator increases, the
speed of the generator and turbine will decreases. Since the
governor is driven by the turbine shaft, its speed will also As a
consequence, the fly balls of the governor will move inwards due
to reduced centrifugal force on the balls. As a result the sleeve of
the governor will move downwards.

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Unit-2
Impulse and reaction turbine

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FRANCIS TURBINE
INTRODUCTION: The Francis turbine is an inward flow
reaction turbine which was designed and developed by the
American engineer James B. Francis. Francis turbine has a
purely radial flow runner; the flow passing through the runner
had velocity component only in a plane of the normal to the
axis of the runner. Reaction hydraulic turbines of relatively
medium speed with radial flow of water in the component of
turbine are runner.

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Working of Francis Turbine

Francis Turbines are generally installed with their axis vertical.
Water with high head (pressure) enters the turbine through the spiral
casing surrounding the guide vanes. The water looses a part of its
pressure in the volute (spiral casing) to maintain its speed. Then
water passes through guide vanes where it is directed to strike the
blades on the runner at optimum angles. As the water flows through
the runner its pressure and angular momentum reduces. This
reduction imparts reaction on the runner and power is transferred to
the turbine shaft.
If the turbine is operating at the design conditions the water leaves
the runner in axial direction. Water exits the turbine through the draft
tube, which acts as a diffuser and reduces the exit velocity of the
flow to recover maximum energy from the flowing water.
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Kaplan turbine construction and working

Kaplan is also known as propeller turbine. Kaplan turbine is a
propeller type water turbine along with the adjustable blades.
Mainly it is designed for low head water applications. The
Kaplan turbine consists of propeller type of blades which works
reverse. By using shaft power displacing the water axially and
creating axial thrust in the turbine. The water flows axially and it
creates axial forces on the Kaplan turbine blades to produce
generating shaft power.

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Due to the low water heads it allows the water flow at larger in
the Kaplan turbine. With help of the guide vane the water
enters. So the guide vanes are aligned to give the flow a
suitable degree of swirl. The swirl is determined according to
the rotor of the turbine. The water flow from the guide vanes
are passes through the curved structure which forces the radial
flow to direction of axial. The swirl is imparted by the inlet
guide vanes and they are not in the form of free vortex. With a
component of the swirl in the form of axial flow are applies
forces on the blades of the rotor. Due to the force it loses both
angular and linear momentum.

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Degree of reaction.
Degree of reaction can be defined as the ratio of pressure
energy change in the blades to total energy change of the fluid.
If the degree of reaction is zero it means that the energy changes
due to the rotor blades is zero, leading to a
different turbine design called PeltonTurbine.

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Draft tube
The draft tube is an important component of a Francis
turbine which influences the hydraulic performance. It is
located just under the runner and allowed to decelerate
the flow velocity exiting the runner, thereby converting
the excess of kinetic energy into static pressure.

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Conical diffuser or straight divergent tube-This type of draft tube consists of a

conical diffuser with half angle generally less than equal to 10 to prevent flow
separation. It is usually employed for low specific speed,vertical shaft Francis
turbine. Efficiency of this type of draft tube is 90%
2. Simple elbow type draft Tube-It consists of an extended elbow type tube.
Generally, used when turbine has to be placed close to the tail-race. It helps to
cut down the cost of excavation and the exit diameter should be as large as
possible to recover kinetic energy at the outlet of runner. Efficiency of this kind of
draft tube is less almost 60%
3. Elbow with varying cross section-It is similar to the Bent Draft tube except
the bent part is of varying cross section with rectangular outlet. The horizontal
portion of draft tube is generally inclined upwards to prevent entry of air from the
exit end.
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cavitation
The liquid enters hydraulic turbines at high pressure; this
pressure is a combination of static and dynamic components. ...
Thus, Cavitation can occur near the fast moving blades of the
turbine where local dynamic head increases due to action of
blades which causes static pressure to fall.

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Net Positive Suction Head

(NPSH)
Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA): The absolute
dynamic head at the pump inlet (suction) in excess of the
vapor pressure
NPSHA is the theoretical amount of head that could be lost
between suction and point of minimum pressure without
causing cavitation(but this always overestimates actual amount
that can be lost, because some velocity head must remain,
even at point of pmin).

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Specific speed
Specific speed is an index used to predict desired
pump or turbine performance. i.e. it predicts the
general shape of a pumps impeller. It is this
impeller's "shape" that predicts its flow and head
characteristics so that the designer can then select
a pump or turbine most appropriate for a particular
application

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Selection of water turbine

Hydropower turbines use water pressure to rotate its blades
and generate energy. Selecting the appropriate type of turbine
depends primarily on available head and less so on available
flow rate. The three primary types of turbines are: the Pelton
turbine, for high heads; the Francis turbine, for low to medium
heads; and the Kaplan turbine for a wide range of heads (see
Figure 2.3a below). Several other types of turbines exist on the
market, described below.

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 To understand the operating characteristics of the

reaction and impulse turbines encompassed in their
governing mechanical laws that predicts their work and
performance.
Demonstrate the mechanism of the turbine-speed control
in relationship with the various forms of energy
explained in the mechanical laws that predicts their
behavior.

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Introduction
A water turbine is a rotary machine that converts kinetic
and potential energy of water into mechanical work.
Water turbines are mostly found in dams to generate
electric power from water kinetic energy.
Water turbines take energy from moving water. Flowing
water is directed on to the blades of a turbine runner,
creating a force on the blades. Since the runner is
spinning, the force acts through a distance to produce
work. In this way, energy is transferred from the water
flow to the turbine.
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Water turbines are divided in two groups :

Reaction turbines- are acted on by water, which changes
pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its
energy. They must be encased to contain the water pressure or
must be fully submerged in the water flow.
Impulse turbines- changes the velocity of a water jet that
strikes on the turbines curved blades, consequently the flow is
reversed and the resulting change in momentum causes a force
in the turbines. The turbine doesnt require housing for
operation.

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In both types of turbines the fluid passes through a runner

having blades. The momentum of the fluid in the tangential
direction is changed and so a tangential force on the runner is
produced. The important feature of the impulse machine is that
there is no change in static pressure, across the runner, while
for the reaction turbine there are considerable changes in
pressure energy.

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Applying
the first law of thermodynamics (principle of energy

conservation) to a control volume. Assuming a steady flow
operation of the turbine per unit of mass (j/kg).
loss
Where ws is the work performed by the fluid on the turbine.

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Actual
work (wa) is the total useful specific energy supply by the
liquid.
The total dynamic head of the turbine is described as:
The hydraulic power (Ph) is the useful power supplied by the
liquid to the turbine.

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Unit-3
Centrifugal pumps

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Pumps
Machine that provides energy to a fluid in a fluid system.
Converts the mechanical energy supplied to it externally to
hydraulic energy and transfers it to the liquid flowing through
a pipe
Flow is normally from high pressure to low pressure

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Pumps
On the basis of mode of action of conversion of mechanical
energy to hydraulic energy, pumps are classified as
Roto-dynamic pumps
Positive displacement pumps
In roto-dynamic pumps, increase in energy level is due to
combination of centrifugal energy, pressure energy and kinetic
energy
In displacement pumps, liquid is sucked and then displaced
due to the thrust exerted on it by a moving member that results
in the lifting of liquid to a desired height.

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Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are the roto-dynamic machines that convert
mechanical energy of shaft into kinetic and pressure energy of
water which may be used to raise the level of water. The wheel
in which this conversion is to realized is known as a impeller.
A centrifugal pump is named so, because the energy added by
the impeller to the fluid is largely due to centrifugal effects.

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Classification of Centrifugal
Pumps
Centrifugal pumps may be classified according to,
1. Working head
2. Specific speed
3. Type of casing
4. Direction of flow of water
5. Number of entrances to the impeller
6. Disposition of shaft
7. Number of stage

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Classification of Centrifugal Pumps

Working Head
Centrifugal pumps may be classified in to low, medium and high-head
pumps.
Low-Head Centrifugal Pumps
These are usually single-stage-centrifugal pumps and work below 15m
head.
Medium-Head Centrifugal Pumps
When the head lies between 15 and 45 m, the pumps are called
medium-head-centrifugal pumps.
High-Head Centrifugal Pumps
When the head exceeds 45m, the pumps are known as high-headcentrifugal pumps. Usually these are multistage pumps, and are
provided with guide vanes. These pumps may have horizontal or
vertical shafts. Vertical shafts are useful in deep wells.
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Specified Speed
Specific speed of a pump is defined as the speed of a
geometrically similar pump which delivers unit discharge
under unit head.
Ns = N Q / H3/4
Types of Casing
Pumps can be divided into following type according to their
casing:
a) Volute-Chamber Pump
b) Vortex-chamber Pump
c) Diffuser Pump
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Work done by the impeller of

a centrifugal pump
Figure shows the velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet tips of a vane fixed to the
impeller.

Let N=speed of the impeller in RPM

D= Diameter of the impeller at inlet
D=Diameter of the impeller at outlet
U1 = Tangential velocity of the impeller at inlet D1N/60
U2= tangential velocity of the impeller at outlet D2N/60
V1=absolute velocity of the liquid at inlet
V2= absolute velocity of the liquid at outlet
Vf1 & Vf2 =are the velocities of flow at inlet and outlet.
Vr1 & Vr2=Relative velocities at inlet and outlet
Vw2=whirl velocity at outlet
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 =angle made by V1 with respect to the motion of the vane

=blade angle at inlet
= blade angle at outlet
For a series of curved vanes the force exerted can be determined
using the impulse momentum equation Work=force x distance.
similarly the work done/sec/unit weight of the liquid striking the
vane=1/g(Vw u2-Vw1u1).
But for a centrifugal pumpVw2=0
Work done/sec/unit weight=Vw2u2
And the work done/sec=Q/g(Vw2u2)
2

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Pump efficiency

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cavitation of a
Pump
Increase pressure at the suction of the pump.

Reduce the temperature of the liquid being pumped.

Reduce head losses in the suction piping.

Reduce the flow rate through the pump.

Reduce the speed of the pump impeller

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Degraded pump performance.

Metal gets corroded seen as small pitting.
Audiable rattling or crackling sounds which can reach a
pitch of dangerous vibrations.
Damage to pump impeller, bearings, wear rings and seals.

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Unit-4
Reciprocating pump

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Reciprocating pump
Pumps are used to increase the energy level of water by virtue
of which it can be raised to a higher level.
Reciprocating pumps are positive displacement pump, i.e.
initially, a small quantity of liquid is taken into a chamber and
is physically displaced and forced out with pressure by a
moving mechanical elements.
The use of reciprocating pumps is being limited these days and
being replaced by centrifugal pumps.

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Reciprocating pump
For industrial purposes, they have become obsolete due to
their high initial and maintenance costs as compared to
centrifugal pumps.
Small hand operated pumps are still in use that include well
pumps, etc.
These are also useful where high heads are required with small
discharge, as oil drilling operations.

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Main components
A reciprocation pumps consists of a plunger or a piston that
moves forward and backward inside a cylinder with the help
of a connecting rod and a crank. The crank is rotated by an
external source of power.
The cylinder is connected to the sump by a suction pipe and to
the delivery tank by a delivery pipe.
At the cylinder ends of these pipes, non-return valves are
provided. A non-return valve allows the liquid to pass in only
one direction.
Through suction valve, liquid can only be admitted into the
cylinder and through the delivery valve, liquid can only be
discharged into the delivery pipe.
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Main components

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Working of Reciprocating
Pump
When the piston moves from the left to the right, a suction
pressure is produced in the cylinder. If the pump is started for
the first time or after a long period, air from the suction pipe is
sucked during the suction stroke, while the delivery valve is
closed. Liquid rises into the suction pipe by a small height due
to atmospheric pressure on the sump liquid.
During the delivery stroke, air in the cylinder is pushed out
into the delivery pipe by the thrust of the piston, while the
suction valve is closed. When all the air from the suction pipe
has been exhausted, the liquid from the sump is able to rise
and enter the cylinder.
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Working of Reciprocating Pump

During the delivery stroke it is displaced into the delivery
pipe. Thus the liquid is delivered into the delivery tank
intermittently, i.e. during the delivery stroke only.

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Classification of Reciprocating pumps

Following are the main types of reciprocating pumps:
According to use of piston sides
Single acting Reciprocating Pump:
If there is only one suction and one delivery pipe and the
liquid is filled only on one side of the piston, it is called a
single-acting reciprocating pump.
Double acting Reciprocating Pump:
A double-acting reciprocating pump has two suction and
two delivery pipes, Liquid is receiving on both sides of the
piston in the cylinder and is delivered into the respective
delivery pipes.
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Classification of Reciprocating pumps

According to number of cylinder
Reciprocating pumps having more than one cylinder are called
multi-cylinder reciprocating pumps.
Single cylinder pump
A single-cylinder pump can be either single or double
acting
Double cylinder pump (or two throw pump)
A double cylinder or two throw pump consist of two
cylinders connected to the same shaft.

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Classification of Reciprocating
pumps
According to number of cylinder
Triple cylinder pump (three throw pump)
A triple-cylinder pump or three throw pump has three
cylinders, the cranks of which are set at 1200 to one
another. Each cylinder is provided with its own suction
pipe delivery pipe and piston.
There can be four-cylinder and five cylinder pumps also,
the cranks of which are arranged accordingly.

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Discharge through a
Reciprocating Pump
Let
A = cross sectional area of cylinder
r = crank radius
N = rpm of the crank
L = stroke length (2r)
Discharge through pump per second=
Area x stroke length x rpm/60

N
Qth A L
60

This will be the discharge when the pump is single

acting.
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Discharge through a
Reciprocating Pump
Discharge in case of double acting pump
Discharge/Second =

Qth

( A AP ) LN
ALN

60
60

( 2 A AP ) LN
Qth
60
Where, Ap = Area of cross-section of piston rod

However, if area of the piston rod is neglected

Discharge/Second =

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2 ALN
60
88

Discharge through a
Reciprocating Pump
Thus discharge of a double-acting reciprocating
pump is twice than that of a single-acting pump.
Owing to leakage losses and time delay in closing
the valves, actual discharge Qa usually lesser
than the theoretical discharge Qth.

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Slip
Slip of a reciprocating pump is defined as the difference
between the theoretical and the actual discharge.
i.e. Slip = Theoretical discharge - Actual discharge
= Qth. Qa
Slip can also be expressed in terms of %age and given by
Qth Qact
% slip
100
Qth

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Qact
1
Qth

100 1 Cd 100

90

Slip
Slip Where Cd is known as co-efficient of
discharge and is defined as the ratio of the actual
discharge to the theoretical discharge.
Cd
=
Qa / Qth.
Value of Cd when expressed in percentage is
known as volumetric efficiency of the pump. Its
value ranges between 95---98 %. Percentage slip
is of the order of 2% for pumps in good
conditions.

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Negative slip
It is not always that the actual discharge is lesser than
the theoretical discharge. In case of a reciprocating
pump with long suction pipe, short delivery pipe and
running at high speed, inertia force in the suction pipe
becomes large as compared to the pressure force on the
outside of delivery valve. This opens the delivery valve
even before the piston has completed its suction stroke.
Thus some of the water is pushed into the delivery pipe
before the delivery stroke is actually commenced. This
way the actual discharge becomes more than the
theoretical discharge.
Thus co-efficient of discharge increases from one and
the slip becomes negative.

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Power Input

Consider a single acting reciprocating pump.

Let
hs = Suction head or difference in level between centre line of cylinder
and the sump.
hd = Delivery head or difference in between centre line of cylinder and
the outlet of delivery pipe.
Hst = Total static head
= hs + hd
Theoretical work done by the pump
= Qth g Hst

ALN

g hs hd
60

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Power Input

Power input to the pump

ALN
g hs hd
60

However, due to the leakage and frictional losses, actual power

input will be more than the theoretical power.
Let
= Efficiency of the pump.
Then actual power input to the pump
ALN

g hs hd
60
1

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Co mpa ri so n o f Centrifugal a nd Recipro ca ting Pumps

Centrifugal Pumps
1. Steady and even flow
2. For large discharge, small heads
3. Can be used for viscous fluids e.g.
oils, muddy water.

Reciprocating Pumps
1. Intermittent and pulsating flow
2. For small discharge, high heads.
3. Can handle pure water or less
viscous liquids only otherwise valves
give frequent trouble.

4. Low initial cost

4. High initial cost.
5. Can run at high speed. Can be 5. Low speed. Belt drive necessary.
coupled
directly to electric motor.
6. Low maintenance cost. Periodic 6. High maintenance cost. Frequent
check up sufficient.
replacement of parts.
7. Compact less floors required.

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7. Needs 6-7 times area than for

centrifugal pumps.

95

Hydraulic Ram?
The hydraulic ram pump may be defined as a self-acting
device that uses the energy of a large volume of water
falling from a higher location (relative to the ram) and
passing through it, to lift a small volume to a location
significantly higher than the ram and the source of water.
It has only 2 moving parts.

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Characteristics of a Hydraulic Ram

Water-Lifting System
(1) there is no other external energy input(e.g.human,animal, fossil

fuel, etc.) that makes the ram work other than the energy of
water passing through the pump.

(2) water has to come from a location higher than the ram;

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(3) only a small portion of this water (around 25 % or less) is

pumped up, the remainder passing out of the ram and must be
drained to a lower location.

(4) the vertical distance to which water can be pumped up

from the ram is significantly higher than the vertical distance

from its source to the ram up to 30 meters delivery height per 1
meter of supply fall, although typically the most efficient is
within a ratio of 10:1 or less, and;

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98

Indicator diagram
The indicator diagram for a reciprocating pump is
defined as the graph between the pressure head in the
cylinder and the distance travelled by piston from inner
dead centre for one complete revolution of the crank.
As the maximum distance travelled by the piston is
equal to the stroke length and hence the indicator
diagram is a graph between pressure head and stroke
length of the piston for one complete revolution.
The pressure head is taken as ordinate and stroke length
as abscissa.

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99

The graph between pressure head in the cylinder and stroke length
of the piston for one complete revolution of the crank under ideal
conditions is known as ideal indicator diagram.
Figure shows the ideal indicator diagram, in which line EF
represents the atmospheric pressure head equal to 10.3 m of water.

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100

Air vessel reciprocating pump

Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump. Here
we will study reciprocating pump with air vessel. It can be
used for less discharge at higher heads. Priming is not
required because it is a positive displacement pump.
Reciprocating pump is used in pumping water in hilly areas.
Reciprocating pumps has lower efficiency compared to
centrifugal pumps.

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Following are the main parts of reciprocating pump..

1.Piston and cylinder.
2.Suction pipe.
3.Suction valve.
4.Delivery pipe.
5.Delivery valve.

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Piston and cylinder: Piston reciprocates in the cylinder. Crank

shaft which is connected to motor and connecting rod give
motion to piston. Main function of piston and cylinder is to pull
the water in cylinder and push it at required height.
Suction pipe:
The suction pipes one end is connected to the pump and other
is depth in the sump. Water enters from sump in to pump
through suction pipe.
Suction valve: The suction valve is fitted on suction pipe close
to the cylinder. It allows the entry of water in to cylinder.
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Delivery pipe:
Delivery pipe is connected between pump and reservoir.
Through the delivery pipe water transferred from pump to
reservoir.
Delivery valve: The delivery valve is fitted on the delivery pipe
close to the cylinder. It allows water to flow in delivery pipe
from cylinder.

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Strainer: It is used to prevent impurities and solid particles from

entering the pump.
Crank: Crank is used to pass motor work to the piston.
Connecting rod: It connects crank with the piston.
Air vessel: Air vessel is used to reduce frictional head and give
a steady flow of liquid.

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Jet pumps, also known as ejector pumps, are devices capable

of handling and transporting all forms of motive fluid
including gas, steam, or liquid. They can be considered
mixers or circulators, since the intake combines multiple fluid
sources. Multiple inlets are used to draw in a constant stream
of fluid, using pressure to create lift through suction. The
combination of intake pressure and velocity of the liquid or
gas jets the media up from a well, tank, or pit through the
pump to the discharge point

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107

Jet pumps are centrifugal pumps with an ejector (venturi nozzle)

attached at the discharge outlet. They function based upon the
Venturi effect of Bernoulli's principle - utilizing constriction to
reduce pressure and provide suction. After the pump is
primed, a motive fluid is pumped through a standard centrifugal
pump and enters an ejector. At the throat of the converging
section of the ejector, the pressurized fluid is ejected at high
velocity. This creates a low pressure (vacuum) at the throat,
drawing the target fluid (from a well or other source) up into the
nozzle. This picture is a diagram of the ejector portion of a jet
pump.

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Jet pumps are typically inserted vertically into the process media,
but can be mounted horizontally as well. They are often used in
applications where the material that is pumped assists in creating
the motive force needed to move through the pump. For example,
in marine applications, jet pumps are used to transfer seawater. In
home applications, they are used to move wastewater up to the
sewer line. A float level sensor and switch are used to turn on the
pump.

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