Introduction to networks

Definition of a network
A network is an
interconnection
of a group of
computers that
can
communicate
and share
resources, such
as hard disks
and printers

Network Topologies
Network topology is a schematic layout or a map
of the arrangement of nodes over a network.
This layout also determines the manner in which
information is exchanged within the network.

The Major types are

Bus

Star

Ring

Tree

Mesh

Cellul
ar

Bus Topology
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of
cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes
(file server, workstations, and peripherals) are
connected to the linear cable. Ethernet and
LocalTalk networks use a linear bus topology.

Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file
server, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub or concentrator.

Ring
In a ring network, every device has exactly two
neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same
direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or
device breaks the loop and can take down the
entire network.

Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear
bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of
star-configured workstations connected to a linear
bus backbone cable .Tree topologies allow for the
expansion of an existing network.

Mesh
Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes.
Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages
sent on a mesh network can take any of several
possible paths from source to destination. Some
WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh
routing.

Cellular
The cellular topology is one of
the most recent topologies used
in networks.
It is a wireless topology, where
geographic area is divided into
cells or regions. Every cell has
an individual node in the center.
There are no physical links in a
cellular topology, the nodes from
one cell can move to another.
For example, in a cell, a
receiving node (Laptop in a car)
can move or sometimes the
sending node (satellite link) can
also move from one cell to
another.

Network Categories
The resources and software capabilities that
nodes in a network share are commonly known as
services.
The common services provided in a network
include file, print, message, application, and
database services.
Each node in a network can request as well as
provide a service.
Networks are categorized as:
Server-centric
Peer-to-peer

Server centric Network

In a server-centric
network, the requests
are processed centrally
by one or more servers.
The server is a terminal
with high processing
power, which provides
services for the other
computers in a
network.
The client is a terminal
that accesses resources
available on a server.

Peer to Peer Network

In a peer-to-peer network, no specific distinction

exists between a client and a server. In other words,
any node can provide a service as well as request
for a service from another node in the network.
However, they do not have file server or a
centralized management source.

Data Transmission Modes

The physical channel that is used to
connect network components, such as
nodes and printers, is known as the
transmission medium.
The transmission medium determines the
speed and connectivity and, therefore, the
overall performance of the network.
The types of transmission media include
the following
Cables
Wireless

Basic Definitions: Bit, Byte, Octet,

Packet, Header, Bandwidth
Bit: A 0 or a 1 the basic unit of digital data.
Byte: A short collection of bits (usually assumed
to be 8 bits but may, rarely, be 7, 16 or 32).
Octet: A collection of 8 bits.
Packet: A collection of bits in order assembled
for transmission.
Header: Part of packet with info about contents.
Bandwidth: The amount of data which can be
sent on a channel. Usually bits per second
sometimes in bytes (octets) per second.
KB = kilobytes. Kb = kilobits.

Basic Definitions: Host, Hub

Host: A machine which is a point on a
network which packets travel
through.
Hub: A Hub is device which receives
packets on one port and broadcasts
them on all ports

Basic Definitions: Switch

Switch: Often used interchangeably
with router but implies that the
routes are fixed.

Basic Definitions: Router

Router: A router is used to route data
packets between two networks.

Models of the Internet

OSI/ISO Reference Model

TCP/IP Reference Model

Application
Presentation

Application

Session
Transport

Transport
Internet

Model Layers

Network
Data Link
Physical

Open Systems Interconnection

(International Standards Office)

Host-to-network

Transmission Control
Protocol/
Internet Protocol

The OSI Model and Network Devices

OSI
Applicatio
Applicatio
n
n
Presentati
Presentati
on
on

Network Devices

Session
Session
Gateway
Gateway

Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data-Link
Data-Link
Physical
Physical

Hub
Hub

Bridge
Bridge
or
or
Switch
Switch

Advanced
Advanced
Switch
Switch

Router
Router

Cables
Cables are the conventional media
that you use to set up networks.
The various types of cables are
Twisted Pair Cables
Coaxial Cables
Fiber-optic Cables

Twisted Pair cables

Twisted pair cables are of two

types

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Cables (UTPs)

Shielded Twisted Pair

Cables (STPs)

cables consist of a set of

twisted pairs that are
covered with a plastic jacket
Commonly used in
telephone systems

cables consist of multiple

twisted pairs (TPs)
surrounded by an insulator
shield which in turn is
covered by a plastic
encasement
They are expensive and
not so widely available as
compared to UTPs and

UTP CAT ratings

Coaxial Cables
The structure is designed in such a
manner that the two conductors
share a common axis.

Coaxial cables
The following are the most commonly
used categories of coaxial:
RG-6
RG-8
RG-11
RG-58
RG-59

Fibre optic cable

light rays or laser
rays are used
instead of electricity
to transmit data.
This makes fiber
optic a suitable
carrier of data in
areas that are prone
to high levels of EMI
or for long-distance
data transmissions

Fibre Optic cable categories

Single-mode
cables
single mode fiber is
used, which provides
a single path for the
light rays to pass
through the cable

Multimode cables
multimode fiber is
used, which provides
multiple paths for
light rays to pass
through the cable.

Wireless Transmission

.Types of wireless transmission

Radio
Microwave
Infrared

Network Server
A network server is a
computer system in a
network that is shared by
multiple users.
Servers come in all sizes
from x86-based PCs to IBM
mainframes.
The term "server" may
refer to both the hardware
and software (the entire
computer system) or just
the software that performs
the service.

Server Hardware

Processors
A processor processes bits
(binary digits) of data. In its
simplest form, the processor will
retrieve some data, perform
some process on that data, and
then store the result in either its
own internal memory (cache) or
the systems memory
Processors can process
internally either 32 bits or 64
bits of data at any one time.

Memory
RAM is Random Access
Memory, and is the basic
kind of internal memory.
RAM is called random
access
because
the
processor or computer can
access any location in
memory (as contrasted with
sequential access devices,
which must be accessed in
order).
Static and Dynamic Memory
Most network servers have
SIMMs, DIMMs, or RIMMs.

Hard Drives

Network interface cards

A network interface
card, network adapter,
network interface
controller (NIC), or LAN
adapter is a computer
hardware component
designed to allow
computers to
communicate over a
computer network.

Overview of External Disk

Subsystems
External disk subsystems are necessary when
the amount of disk storage cannot be
accommodated by the disk drive bays internal
to the network server chassis.
These external disk subsystems can be either
SCSI(Small Computer System Interface) or
Fibre Channel.
Generally, Fibre Channelbased systems can
support many more disk drives than a SCSIbased external system.

What is BIOS
(Basic Input/Output System) is an electronic set of
instructions that a computer uses to successfully start
operating. The BIOS is located on a CMOS chip inside of
the computer and is designed in a way that protects it
from disk failure.
A main function of the BIOS is to give instructions for the
power-on self test (POST). This self test ensures that the
computer has all of the necessary parts and functionality
needed to successfully start itself, such as use of memory,
a keyboard and other parts. If errors are detected during
the test, the BIOS instructs the computer to give a code
that reveals the problem. Error codes are typically a series
of beeps heard shortly after startup.

Local Area Network

A LAN
connects
network
devices over
a relatively
short distance

Wide Area Network

A WAN is a
geographicall
y-dispersed
collection of
LANs. A
network
device called
a router
connects
LANs to a

IPV4
IP operates at the Internet layer to determine the addresses of
the computers to which data is to be transmitted. The protocol
uses IP addresses to locate computers over a TCP/IP network.
An IPV4 address is a unique 32-bit numeric identifier for a
computer over a TCP/IP network.

Some examples
richard@manor.york.ac.uk (email)
144.32.100.24
http://www.apoptygma.eu.org (www)
148.122.211.110
ftp://ftp.uk.debian.org (file transfer)
195.224.53.39
telnet://towel.blinkenlights.nl (telnet)
62.250.7.101

IPV4

The Network ID identifies a network

The host ID identifies a particular computer on
the network.

Network ID

ID

Octet 1

Octet 2

Host

Octet 3

Octet 4

IPv4 Networks
IP networks were originally subdivided into
class A, B, C, D and E networks based on
their ranges
Start
End
Networks
Hosts/network
A

1.0.0.0

127.255.255.255

126

16 million

128.0.0.0

191.255.255.255

16,382

64K

192.0.0.0

223.255.255.255

2 million

254

224.0.0.0

239.255.255.255

Multicast

240.0.0.0

247.255.255.255

Reserved

Classes and the network size

Class A
Network
Large network ID

Host ID

w
Class B
Medium
network

Network ID

z
Host ID

10

w
Class C
Small network

Network ID

z
Host ID

110

Reserved IP addresses
127.0.0.1 - The loopback interface address. All
127.x.x.x addresses are used by the loopback
interface which copies data from the transmit
buffer to the receive buffer of the NIC when
used.
0.0.0.0 - This is reserved for hosts that don't
know their address and use BOOTP or DHCP
protocols to determine their addresses.
255 - The value of 255 is never used as an
address for any part of the IP address. It is
reserved for broadcast addressing.

Valid and Invalid IP

addresses
A few examples of valid and invalid addresses are listed below:
1. Valid addresses:
10.1.0.1 through 10.1.0.254
10.0.0.1 through 10.0.0.254
10.0.1.1 through 10.0.1.254

2. Invalid addresses:
10.1.0.0 - Host IP can't be 0.
10.1.0.255 - Host IP can't be 255.
10.123.255.4 - No network or subnet can have a value of 255.
0.12.16.89 - No Class A network can have an address of 0.
255.9.56.45 - No network address can be 255.
10.34.255.1 - No network address can be 255.

Subnetting
What is Subnetting?
The process of splitting a network into
smaller networks is called subnetting.
Smaller networks formed as a result of
splitting are known as subnets. Subnets
are independent networks in themselves.
Subnets are connected to the rest of the
network through address-resolving
devices called routers.

What Is a Subnet?
131.107.3.27
131.107.3.27
131.107.12.7
131.107.12.7
Subnet 2
131.107.3.0
Main Network
131.107.12.0
131.107.10.12
131.107.10.12
Router
Router
Subnet 1
131.107.10.0

131.107.12.31
131.107.12.31

Router
Router

Subnetting
Why is Subnetting Required?
This is done to reduce network traffic, optimize
network performance, and simplify network
management.
What is a subnet mask ?
A subnet mask is a 32-bit value that distinguishes
between the network ID and host ID in an IP
address. In addition, subnet mask value helps
calculate the valid IP addresses that can be
assigned to computers over a subnet

Subnetting

Classes and their default subnet masks

Class A: 255.0.0.0
Class B: 255.255.0.0
Class C: 255.255.255.0
If the network is split into smaller subnets then
the subnet mask needs to be calculated.

What Are Private and Public IP Addresses?

Private addresses:

Do not have to be registered

Can be assigned by the network
administrator
Are used on computers that are not
accessed
by the Internet

Public addresses:
Are assigned by an ISP
Consist of unique class-based blocks
Are kept to a limited number

Network Operating Systems

A network operating system does everything a stand

alone operating system does, and more in a much
more complex environment. In addition to the usual
lower level computing tasks, a network operating
system is responsible for all the following tasks:
Directing data traffic through the network
Allowing and preventing access to data based on
security requirements
Preventing access to data files while they are being
processed
Managing the flow of information between a variety of
workstations
Managing requests for printer services
Managing communication and messages between
network users
Managing connections between the network and

Configuring server Roles

Configuring server Roles

Domain Controller
(Active Directory)
Provides directory
services to clients in
the network. This
option configures a
domain controller for a
new or existing
domain and installs
DNS.
Choosing this option
runs the Active
Directory Installation
Wizard.

Configuring server Roles

DNS Server Provides
host name resolution
by translating host
names to IP addresses
(forward lookups) and
IP addresses to host
names (reverse
lookups).
Choosing this option
installs the DNS
service and then starts
the Configure a DNS
Server Wizard

Configuring server Roles

DHCP Server
provides automatic IP
addressing services
to clients configured
to use dynamic IP
addressing.
Choosing this option
installs DHCP services
and then starts the
New Scope Wizard to
define one or more IP
address scopes in the
network.

Configuring server Roles

File Server provides
convenient, centralized
access to files and
directories for Individual
users, departments, and
entire organizations.
Choosing this option
allows you to manage user
disk space by enabling
and configuring disk quota
Management and to
provide improved file
system search
performance by enabling
the Indexing service.

Configuring server Roles

Print Server Provides
centralized and managed access
to printing devices by serving
shared printers and printer
drivers to client computers.
Choosing this option starts the
Add Printer Wizard to install
printers and their associated
Windows printer drivers. It also
installs Internet Information
Services (IIS 6.0) and configures
Internet Printing Protocol (IPP)
and installs the Web-based
printer administration tools.

Configuring server Roles

Application
Server (IIS,
ASP.NET)
Provides
infrastructure
components
required to
support the
hosting of
Web
applications.