Concrete Technology: Portland Cement

Concrete Technology
Dr. P. DINAKAR
Department of Civil Engineering
Portland Cement
Portland Cement
Concrete
Admixtures Definition & Classification
Material other than water, aggregates, cement and
reinforcing fibers that is used in concrete as an ingredient and
added to the batch immediately before or during mixing.
i. Air-entraining agents (ASTM C260)
ii. Chemical admixtures (ASTM C494 and BS5075)
iii. Mineral admixtures
iv. Miscellaneous admixtures include:

Latexes
Corrosion inhibitors
Expansive admixtures
2
Department of Civil Engineering - IIT Bhubaneswar 05.03.17
Admixtures Definition & Classification
Beneficial effects of admixtures on concrete properties
3
Admixtures for Concrete
Admixture in liquid form
Admixture in solid form
4
Admixtures Water reducing admixtures
Water-reducing admixture lowers the water required to
attain a given workability.
5
Admixtures - How they work
Mechanism:
Separate the cement particles
Release the entrapped water
Cement particles in the absence of a dispersing admixture

6
Admixtures - How they work
Cement particles in the presence of a dispersing admixture
7
Water reducing admixtures
Two kinds of water-reducing admixture:
The normal range (WR):
i. Reduce 5 10% of water

The high range water reducing admixture (HRWR):
i. Superplasticizer
ii. Reduce water in a range of 15-30%
8
Superplasticizer
Superplasticizers are used for two main purposes:
i. To produce high strength concrete at w/c ratio in a
range of 0.23 0.3 (60 150MPa)
ii. To create flowing concrete with high slumps in the
range of 175 to 225mm. Self compacting concrete: for
beam-column joint and footing (heavy reinforced)
Two forms
i. Solid power
ii. Liquid ---40% -60% of water
9
Superplasticizer
Dosage:
Normal dosage of superplasticizer for concrete is 1%-2%
by weight of cement.
Other benefits on hardened concrete may be stated as:
A lower w/c ratio would lead to better durability and lower
creep and shrinkage.
The major drawbacks of superplasticizer are:
i. retarding of setting (especially at large amount addition)
ii. causing more bleeding
iii. entraining too much air.
10
Set Controlling Admixtures
Mechanisms
Change the rate of the crystallization of portland cement

by adding certain soluble chemicals to influence the ion
dissolution rate.
Anions (silicate and aluminate)
Cations (calcium)
The setting will be speeded up when dissolution rates of

cations and anions are higher. On the other hand, the
setting will be slow down when dissolution rates of
cations and anions are lower.
11
Mechanisms (Contd)
Accelerating admixture: must promote the dissolution of
cations and anions.
Retarding admixture must impede the dissolution of
cations and anions
12
Applications
i. Retarding admixtures:
1. Offset fast setting caused by hot weather
2. Setting control of large structural units
3. Setting control of long distance transport
ii. Accelerators:
1. Emergency repair: High way; Bridge
2. Winter construction in cold region
- E.g. use calcium chloride (CaCl2)
13
Influence of calcium chloride in relation to setting period
14
Air Entraining Admixtures
Air entraining admixtures entrain air in the concrete
Small size air bubbles is introduced into concrete

uniformly
The air bubbles are enclosed, not connected
15
Two types of air bubbles introduced in concrete
Entrained air:
On purpose
Size: 50 to 200 m
Entrapped air:
By chance
As large as 3mm
16
Advantages of adding air entraining admixtures
Improved workability ---air bubble as lubricant
Improved ductility ---more deformation from small hole
Reduced permeability ---isolated air bubble
Improved impact resistance ---more deformation
Improved durability ---freezing and thawing (release ice

forming pressure)
17
Disadvantage of adding air entrainment admixture
Strength loss of 10-20%
18
Mineral Admixtures
Finely divided siliceous materials which are added into

concrete in relatively large amount.
Silica fume
Fly ash
19
Pozzolans
Pozzolans are siliceous or aluminous materials, which
possess by themselves little or no cementitious
properties, but in finely divided form react with calcium
hydroxide in the presence of moisture at ordinary
temperatures to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties (definition according to ASTM
C595).
20
Pozzolanic reaction
CH + Reactive SiO2 + H2O C-S-H

Reaction is
- Lime consuming
- Pore refining
- Interface refining (why?)
- Slow (low heat of hydration)
- Accelerated by alkalis and gypsum
21
Why mineral admixtures are key components for
durability ?
+
Hydration
reaction
OPC/silicates C-S-H Ca(OH)2 or
+ C-S-H
Portlandite
+
+
Pozzolanic
reaction
Water Fly ash

22
Silica fume
Silica fume is a by-product of the induction arc furnaces
in the silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloy industries.
Silica fume has very fine particles
20% below 0.05 micron
23
Silica fume
The typical chemical composition of silica fume
24
Silica fume Powder form
25
Silica fume Liquid form
26
Effect of silica fume
Physical: Packing
Chemical: Pozzolanic reaction
27
Silica fume available as..
As a bulk powder: Due to the low specific gravity of silica
fume (~2.2), the bulk powder becomes very bulky and
difficult to handle and transport.
Dry-densified silica fume: Compaction by pressure is
used to flocculate the silica fume particles. An efficient
superplasticizer is required to deflocculate and cause a
good dispersion of the silica fume in concrete.
Slurry: 50% water + 47% silica fume + 3% chemical
agent, that keeps the particles in suspension and
prevents gelling. The slurry form is susceptible to gelling
in cold climates. However, it is a very efficient way of
dispensing silica fume. Also, storage space can also be
reduced.
28
Properties
Specific gravity: 2.2
Typical fineness: 20000 m2/kg
Colour: light grey to dark grey (lighter implies purer)
Cost: almost 10 times as much as PC
Typically used at 5 15% replacement level
Benefits from silica fume are due to the pozzolanic
reaction that produces additional C-S-H, as well as due
to the particle packing (filler effect) of the fine silica fume
particles
29
Silica fume
30
Effects on fresh concrete
Because of its high fineness, the use of silica fume
causes an increase in the water demand of concrete.
Typically it is always used in conjunction with a
superplasticizer.
Silica fume causes the mix to be sticky and cohesive.
Also, concrete mixes with silica fume are prone to slump
loss problems. Because of its cohesiveness, a higher
slump is needed to place silica fume concrete.
Bleeding is reduced drastically. In fact, most silica fume
mixes do not show any bleeding. In dry areas, if the
evaporation rate exceeds the rate at which concrete
sets, plastic shrinkage may occur.
31
..(contd.)
Creep and shrinkage are increased at high replacement levels
(10 15%) because of an increase in the volume of the paste.
Amount of air-entraining agent required for a particular volume
of air is increased in silica fume concrete. Freeze-thaw
resistance is reduced slightly compared to normal concrete,
but damage is usually limited owing to the extremely low
permeability of SFC.
In most cases, silica fume concrete shows better resistance to
chemical attack (exceptions being ammonium sulphate and
magnesium sulphate attack), owing to the decreased
permeability, as well as due to reduced CH in the paste.
Expansions due to ASR are reduced in silica fume concrete.
32
..(contd.)
Corrosion rate is reduced with the use of silica fume.
This is because of two reasons: the low permeability of
SFC causes a lower availability of moisture and oxygen
at the cathodic sites, and the high resistivity of SFC
makes the flow of electrons difficult.
Carbonation depth is generally lowered.
SFC has very good abrasion and erosion resistance.
Fire performance of SFC is not very good
33
Applications of Silica fume concrete
Ultra High Strength Requirements
High Abrasion Resistance
Early-Age Strength Improvement
Corrosion Protection
Repair Applications
34
Fly Ash
Source
By-product obtained during combustion of coal in

thermal power plants
The quality and composition of fly ash depends on the

type of coal being burnt
35
Fly Ash
36
Need for fly ash utilization
Nearly 73% of Indias total power generation is thermal
(mostly using coal)
100 million tons of fly ash being generated annually
World Bank - by 2015, disposal of coal ash would
require 1000 square kilometres or one square metre of

land per person in India
37
Environment & Forests (MoEF), GOI, (3rd Nov, 2009)
Within 100 Km radius of a Thermal Power Plant
To use Fly Ash based Building products such as
cement or concrete, fly ash bricks, blocks, tiles etc. in
all construction projects
To use Fly Ash in Road or Flyover Embankment
construction
To use Fly Ash in Reclamation of low lying areas
Within 50Km of a Thermal Power Plant (By Road)
To use Fly Ash in back filling of underground and open
cast mines
38
Collection of fly ash
During combustion of coal, 75 80% of the ash flies out with
the flue gas, and is thus called fly ash. The ash that
doesnt fly out is called bottom ash. This can be processed
as aggregate, but is generally not used in concrete.
The collection of fly ash is done using the following two
types of precipitators:
- Bag-house precipitator
- Electrostatic precipitator
The bag-house precipitator is found to be more efficient, and
removes out very fine material
39
Classification of Fly ash (ASTM)
Classified according to the coal burned
Class F: Anthracite or bituminous coal
Class C: Lignite or sub bituminouscoal
Class C is more active than Class F
40
ASTM Classification
Type C: This is also called High Calcium (CaO) fly ash, and
possesses both cementitious and pozzolanic properties. 10
15% of the material has a particle size greater than 45 m,
and the fineness (Blaine) is 300 400 m 2/kg. The particles
are primarily solid spheres with a smooth texture. The
average particle size is less than 20 m.
Type F: This is also called Low Calcium (CaO) fly ash, and is
a normally pozzolanic material. 15 20% of the material is
larger than 45 m, and the fineness is 200 300 m 2/kg.
Particles are solid spheres with a smooth texture, and the
average particle size is 20 m.
41
Fly ash - Construction
Concrete production
25% to 30% replacement
Can improve durability
Good for long term strength
Better to be used with other mineral admixtures
42
Fly ash
Advantages of incorporation of fly ash

Low cost ---$200-300/Ton (cement $500/Ton)
Low energy demand ---Industry by product
Low hydration heat ---pozzolanic reaction
Disadvantages of incorporation of fly ash

Low early age strength
Longer initial setting time
Solution: Alkali activator (1% NaOH)
43
Effects on fresh concrete
The setting time is increased when fly ash is used.
Workability and flow of concrete are increased due to

the spherical shape of the fly ash particles, which lends
a ball-bearing type effect on the concrete mixture.
Bleeding and segregation are usually reduced for well-
proportioned fly ash concrete.
The paste volume is increased when mass
replacement of cement by fly ash is done.
44
Effects on hardened concrete
Strength gain of fly ash concrete is slower than normal
concrete, as stated in the previous sections. Ultimate strengths
are usually improved when fly ash is used.
Creep and shrinkage of fly ash concrete are typically higher
than normal concrete, because of the increased amount of
paste in the concrete (when mass replacement is done).
More air-entraining admixture is needed to entrain air in fly-ash
concrete.
The results on the effects of fly ash on sulphate resistance are
inconclusive.
Expansions during alkali aggregate reaction are reduced by the
use of fly ash, because of the dilution of Portland cement
(implying there are lesser alkalis available).
45
Specialized applications
In high strength concrete, as an additional cementitious
material.
In roller-compacted concrete. Fly ash is good for
bonding in-between the layers of this concrete.
In controlled low-strength materials (CLSM), which are
flowable mortars used as backfill
As a synthetic aggregate
For manufacture of bricks
46
Comparison of Chemical and Physical Characteristics -- Silica Fume,
Fly Ash and Cement
Silica Fume Fly Ash Cement
SiO2 Content 85- 97 35 - 48 20 -25
Surface Area m2/kg 17,000 - 30,000 400 - 700 300 - 500
Pozzolanic Activity
(with cement, %) 120 - 210 85 - 110 n/a
Pozzolanic Activity
(with lime, psi) (MPa) 1,200 - 1,660 800 - 1,000 n/a
(8.3 - 11.4) (5.5 - 6.9)
47
Concrete Hardened Concrete
Harden concrete is the concrete which gains sufficient
strength and ready to carry out the external load. Its
properties have to meet the requirement of end users.
48
Main Properties of Hardened Concrete
Strength
Compressive strength
Flexural strength
Elastic modulus
Durability of concrete
49
Concrete Strength
The strength of a material can be defined as its ability
to resist to stress without failure
The strength of concrete is a very important property,

normally used as a parameter for concrete
specification, mix design and quality control
Why is strength specified in construction design and

quality control?
It is relatively easy to be measured
Other properties are related to the strength
50
Concrete Strength
In concrete the strength is normally measured by
compression (compressive strength) or flexure (flexural
strength)
The compressive strength of concrete is always higher
than its flexural strength, and it is clearly shown by the
results of the tests performed in lab. Although there is
no direct relationship between these two parameters,
normally the compressive strength of a concrete is 8 to
10 times higher than its flexural strength
51
Influence of Concrete Constituents on its Strength
The strength of concrete is determined by:

Strength of the aggregates
Strength of cement paste
Strength of the transition zone (interfacial zone
between aggregate and cement paste)
52
Compressive strength test Failure mechanism
a. Random microcrack
b. Stably growth of microcracks
c. Microcrack localization
d. Failure (major crack in vertical direction)
53
Failure surface of a usual concrete
54
Failure surface of concrete containing weak
coarse aggregate
55
Main factors affecting early strength
Cement
Cementtype
type Initial
Initialconcrete
concretetemperature
temperature
35
Concrete temperature (C)

35
Concrete temperature (C)

30
30 30
30
25
25 25
25
20 20
20
(MPa)
20
15
(MPa)
15
15 15
10 10
10 10
5 5
5 5
0 0
0 0
12 Hours 18 hours 0 10 20 30 40 50
12 Hours 18 hours 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (hours)
CEM I 32.5 CEM I 42.5 CEM I 52.5 Time (hours)
CEM I 32.5 CEM I 42.5 CEM I 52.5
W/C
W/Cratio
ratio
30
30
Size
Sizeof
ofelement
element(section,
(section,volume)
25
25
20
volume)
20
Curing
Curingcondition
condition
(MPa)
15
(MPa)
15
10
10
Chemical
Chemicaladmixtures
admixtures
5
5
0
0 10 hours 16 hours 24 hours
10 hours 16 hours 24 hours
W/C = 0.5 W/C = 0.35

W/C = 0.5 W/C = 0.35
56
Elasticity Modulus of concrete
The elasticity modulus is the ratio between an applied
tension (stress) and the correspondent deformation
(strain) observed in the concrete
The elasticity modulus of High
Aggregate
the concrete increases performance
concrete
with the increase of the:
Elasticity modulus of the Ordinary
aggregate concrete
Aggregate content
Strength of cement paste Cement
paste
Strength of the bond
between aggregate and
cement paste
59
Elasticity Modulus
The elasticity modulus of the concrete also increases
with the strength of concrete
60
Stress Strain curves of typical materials
61
Direct Tension tests
Direct tension tests of concrete are seldom to carry out
because it is difficult to control and because the
specimen holding devices introduce secondary stress
that cannot be ignored. Two frequently used methods
are described below.
62
Direct Tension tests
63
In-direct Tension test
BS 1881: Part 117:1983 150 x 300mm cylinder. Loading
rate 0.02 to 0.04 MPa/s
ASTM C 496-71: 150 x 300mm cylinder. Loading rate
0.011 to 0.023 MPa/s
64
In-direct Tension test
Splitting tensile strength fst = 2P/ DL
65
Flexural strength
BS 1881: Part 118: 1983
Flexural test -150 x 150 x 750mm or 100 x 100 x

500mm (Max. size of aggregate is less than 25mm)
66
Flexural strength
67
Durability of concrete
Strategies for concrete design have changed over the
years
Strength-based design is being replaced by designs

centered on the
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
68
What is durability of concrete ?
Durability of hydraulic-cement concrete is defined as its
ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack,
abrasion, or any other process of deterioration (ACI)
Durable concrete will retain its original form, quality, and
serviceability when exposed to its environment
69
Common Durability Problems in Concrete
Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete
Sulphate and other chemical attack of concrete
Alkali-aggregate reaction
Freezing and thawing damage
70
Durability and Permeability
Water is common to all the durability problems in
concrete. The presence of water, or its involvement in
the reactions is necessary for the problems to occur.
Thus, the durability of concrete is intrinsically related to
its water-tightness, or permeability.
71
Concrete Permeability
The permeability of concrete is influenced by several
factors. They are:
Composition of cement paste: cement type
Degree of hydration of cement paste
Water/cement ratio
Aggregate content
Cement content
72
Concrete Permeability
Influence of cement type, water/cement ratio and
cement content on concrete permeability
Amount of passing Resistance of

charge Chloride
(Coulombs) Penetration(*)
> 4000 High
2000 4000 Moderate
1000 2000 Low
100 1000 Very low
< 100 Negligible
(*)
According to ASTM C 1202
73
Permeability and Porosity
Permeability of concrete is a function of the permeability
of the cement paste, of the aggregate, and of the
interfacial transition zone. The permeability of these
components is in turn related to the porosity.
Porosity and permeability need not be directly related.
The interconnectivity of pores is generally responsible
for a high permeability.
74
Types of chemical attack
Sulphate attack
Acid attack
Chloride attack
Carbonation
75
Sulphate attack: Introduction
Sulphate attack: When the sulphate ions are from an
external source react with the aluminates of cement to
form expansive products leading to complete
destruction of concrete over a period of time
Common chemicals carrying sulphate ions: Na2SO4,

MgSO4, CaSO4, (NH4)2SO4 and FeSO4 these are
present in various concentrations in seawater and
groundwater
76
Sulphate attack reactions
Hydrated cement phases react in an aqueous medium
with the sulphate ions
Primary products formed are gypsum and ettringite
Other reactions result in a progressive loss of stability of

the calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), which is the primary
strength-giving compound of hydrated cement
77
Sulphate attack reactions
Action on CH:
CH + NS + 2H CSH2 + NH Gypsum formation
CH + MS + 2H CSH2 + MH Gypsum and brucite!
Gypsum causes softening and strength loss, and is also
reported to cause expansion. However, the further reaction of
gypsum with the aluminates C3A and its hydrates, and,
monosulphate, leads to the formation of expansive ettringite
Loss of CH Reduction in pH of the system
Formation of brucite (MH) as a layer on the surface protects
the concrete from further attack for a while; however, it does
not help in the long run!
78
Modes of failure
Expansions associated with gypsum and ettringite
formation lead to cracking
Loss of strength and structural integrity due to a loss of

the cementitious structure
79
Protection against sulphate attack
Use of low C3A cements (sulphate resisting cements are
proportioned based on this concept); low C3S would also
help
Use of high alumina cement
Use of supersulphated cement
Use of pozzolanic materials and mineral admixtures
Low w/c and good impermeability!!
80
Chloride attack
Solutions bearing chloride ions can also react with
cementitious compounds, although the products that
form as a result do not cause any expansions
Consumption of cementitious phases could lead to
increase in porosity, reduction of pH, etc.
C3A can bind Cl- ions; thus, high C3A cements are good
against chloride attack
81
Acid attack
Primarily a problem in sewer pipes
Typically related to H2SO4
Gypsum formation, and an associated softening and

strength loss of the structure observed
Loss of cementitious nature due to deterioration of CSH
because of low pH
82
Seawater attack
Combined effect of sulphates and chlorides
In addition to chemical attack, other complications are

also involved:
- Tidal zones subjected to drying and wetting (salt
crystallization)
- Splashing action of waves leads to mechanical
degradation
83
Carbonation
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the pores of concrete and
reacts with calcium hydroxide; as a result, the alkalinity
(pH) of the concrete is reduced
Reduction of pH causes the passivity of reinforcing steel

(protective layer) to be destroyed
84
Corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete
The corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete is a
problem of mammoth proportions. It is estimated that
5% of a developed nations GDP is utilized for repair of
corrosion-related damage. The yearly cost of repairs for
reinforced concrete bridge decks in the US alone is
estimated to be $ 50 200 million.
85
Reactions of corrosion
Corrosion is an electrochemical problem. The overall

mechanism can be broken up into the anode reaction
and the cathode reaction
86
Rust formation
The ferrous and hydroxyl ions combine to form the rust
products.
2 Fe2+ + 4 OH- 2 Fe(OH)2 (greenish rust)
The greenish rust, upon further reactions with O 2 and
OH-, can form Fe2O3 (red rust) and Fe3O4 (black rust).
The rust often accumulates at places other than the
reaction sites.
87
Reactions of corrosion
P. K. Mehta, P. J. M. Monteiro, Concrete,

2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 1995
88
Factors influencing rate of corrosion
Availability of dissolved oxygen and moisture at the
cathode
Resistivity of the medium (concrete and its pore
solution)
Passivation of steel: In an alkaline environment, the
surface atoms of the steel get oxidized to form an thin
oxide layer (thickness of about 10 nm) of FeOOH. This
film is stable in the highly alkaline environment of
concrete.
89
Some factors influencing rate of corrosion
From Bentur, Diamond, and Berke, Steel Corrosion in Concrete, E&FN Spon, UK, 1997.
90
Depassivation of steel
The phenomenon of the formation of a protective oxide
layer around the steel is called passivation
Depassivation, or the breakdown of this layer, can occur
by a number of mechanisms:
(1) Consumption of OH- by carbonation and other reactions;
when the pH falls below 11.5, the film is no longer stable;
(2) Presence of a high concentration of Cl- (pitting corrosion)
91
Propagation of corrosion
Once depassivation
occurs, the initiation
process of corrosion is
complete; the steel then
corrodes at an almost
constant rate
92
Protection against corrosion
1. Galvanization: this process involves the plating or
steel with Zinc. Zn, having a higher electrochemical
potential compared to Fe (more negative), becomes
the sacrificial anode, and Fe is protected as the
cathode
2. Cathodic protection: An external voltage or current is
supplied to the steel to keep it cathodic and preventing
oxidation from occurring
93
Protection (contd.)
3. Use of stainless steel (very high Cr): Produces a stable
passivating film
4. Use of epoxy coated steel: Very expensive!
5. Use of corrosion inhibitors
- Oxidizing or non-oxidizing passivators of steel
- Oxygen scavengers
- Film forming compounds (adsorption)
- Cathodic effects: paste can be made hydrophobic
Some typical corrosion inhibitors are:
Inorganic: Calcium nitrite
Organic: Amines, esters, alkanolamines
These compounds are usually added at high dosages, ~ 2% by weight of
cement; $$ very expensive $$ !!
94
Protection (contd.)
6. Adequate depth of cover

7. Good quality concrete with low permeability
95
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction, What is it?
Reaction of alkalis in concrete with certain specific types
of aggregates
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR): when aggregates with
reactive forms of silica are used
Alkalis could come from cement, admixtures, water, or
from aggregates themselves!
96
Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)
Alkalis
+
ASR Gel Concrete
Reactive
which cracking
Silica
expands
+
Moisture
97
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When the expansive pressure exceeds the tensile
strength of the concrete, the concrete cracks
99
When cracks reach the surface of the structure, map
cracking results
100
Manifestation of ASR
ASR is a very slow reaction. May take many years to
show!
Irregular cracks on surface with a map pattern
Gel can also ooze out through the cracks to the surface
101
Freezing and Thawing
This is related to the failure of the paste.
Parallel cracks form in the paste and proceed inward

from the places where concrete first becomes highly
saturated with water.
102
Protection against paste failure
Use of air entraining agents: Creation of well-distributed
air void system (Critical distance: 0.2 mm)
Low w/c concrete very small pore size makes freezing
difficult
103

Concrete Technology: Portland Cement

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Concrete Technology

ii. Chemical admixtures (ASTM C494 and BS5075)

iii. Mineral admixtures

iv. Miscellaneous admixtures include:

Admixture in liquid form

Admixture in solid form

Release the entrapped water

Cement particles in the absence of a dispersing admixture

Two kinds of water-reducing admixture:

The normal range (WR):

i. Reduce 5 10% of water

Change the rate of the crystallization of portland cement

The setting will be speeded up when dissolution rates of

Influence of calcium chloride in relation to setting period

Small size air bubbles is introduced into concrete

Improved ductility ---more deformation from small hole

Reduced permeability ---isolated air bubble

Improved impact resistance ---more deformation

Improved durability ---freezing and thawing (release ice

Finely divided siliceous materials which are added into

CH + Reactive SiO2 + H2O C-S-H

OPC/silicates C-S-H Ca(OH)2 or

Water Fly ash

Chemical: Pozzolanic reaction

SFC has very good abrasion and erosion resistance.

Fire performance of SFC is not very good

High Abrasion Resistance

Early-Age Strength Improvement

By-product obtained during combustion of coal in

The quality and composition of fly ash depends on the

Nearly 73% of Indias total power generation is thermal

(mostly using coal)

100 million tons of fly ash being generated annually

World Bank - by 2015, disposal of coal ash would

require 1000 square kilometres or one square metre of

25% to 30% replacement

Can improve durability

Good for long term strength

Better to be used with other mineral admixtures

Advantages of incorporation of fly ash

Low energy demand ---Industry by product

Low hydration heat ---pozzolanic reaction

Disadvantages of incorporation of fly ash

Longer initial setting time

Solution: Alkali activator (1% NaOH)

Workability and flow of concrete are increased due to

For manufacture of bricks

SiO2 Content 85- 97 35 - 48 20 -25

Surface Area m2/kg 17,000 - 30,000 400 - 700 300 - 500

The strength of concrete is a very important property,

Why is strength specified in construction design and

The strength of concrete is determined by:

Concrete temperature (C)

Concrete temperature (C)

W/C = 0.5 W/C = 0.35

Splitting tensile strength fst = 2P/ DL

Flexural test -150 x 150 x 750mm or 100 x 100 x

Strength-based design is being replaced by designs

Amount of passing Resistance of

> 4000 High

2000 4000 Moderate

1000 2000 Low

100 1000 Very low