English Grammar

101
A Review of the Essentials

David A. deSilva
Parts of Speech
Nouns
Pronouns
Verbs
Adjective
Adverbs
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections
Parts of Speech (2)
Nouns: words that name persons, places, things, or ideas
Pronouns: words that stand in for a noun
Verbs: words that express action or state of being
Adjectives: words that describe nouns or pronouns
Adverbs: words that describe verbs
Prepositions: words that connect a noun and its modifiers to
another component of the sentence
Conjunctions: words that join nouns, verbs, or other parts of a
sentence
Interjections: words that express emotion, shock, and the like.
Parts of a Sentence
Every sentence has a subject and a predicate.
The subject is the noun or the pronoun that the
sentence says something about;
The predicate is what is said about that noun or
pronoun, i.e., what that noun does or what that
noun is.
Jesus wept. (John 11:35 NIV)
Jesus is the subject: the sentence is about Jesus.
wept is the predicate what is said about Jesus.
Subjects and Predicates
And no one in heaven or on earth or under the
earth was able to open the scroll or to look into it.
(Rev 5:3 NRSV)
no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth is the
subject; the main subject would be one; the rest is
composed of modifiers (or descriptors)
was able to open the scroll or to look into it is the
predicate; the main predicate would be was; the
remaining words are complements and objects.
Subjects and Predicates (2)
When he had taken the scroll, the four living
creatures and the twenty-four elders fell before the
Lamb, each holding a harp and golden bowls full
of incense, which are the prayers of the saints.
(Rev 5:8 NRSV)
The subject is in italics; all the rest is predicate (when he
had tells when the elders fell).
Predicates can be split up; subjects do not always come
first.
In this sentence, we find a compound subject (more
than one subject): (1) creatures and (2) elders.
Subjects and Predicates (3)
And the elders fell down and worshiped. (Rev
5:14b NRSV)
In this example, we find a compound predicate: the
subject governs more than one verb (1) fell down and
(2) worshiped
Then I saw between the throne and the four living
creatures and among the elders a Lamb standing
as if it had been slaughtered, having seven horns
and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God
sent out into all the earth. (Rev 5:6 NRSV)
In this example, the subject is one word: I
Subjects and Predicates (4)
Sentences starting with there or it: these
words are often used as a kind of place marker
for the real subject of a sentence.
There will be earthquakes in various places; there will be
famines. (Mk13:8NRSV)
Grammatically speaking, the sentence is: Earthquakes will
be [=will occur] in various places; famines will be [=will
happen]. The grammatical subjects are earthquakes and
famine, not there and there.
Subjects and Predicates (5)
But in these sacrifices there is a reminder of sin
year after year. (Heb10:3NRSV)
Grammatically speaking, the sentence is: But a
reminder of sins is in these sacrifices year after
year. The real subject is reminder.
It is senseless to give a pledge, to become surety
for a neighbor. (Prov17:18NRSV)
Grammatically speaking to give a pledge is the
subject (to become surety for a neighbor is set in
apposition). To give a pledge is senseless.
Complements
Alongside the verb, the predicate often
contains other essential parts of the
sentence. These may include:
Direct objects
Indirect objects
Predicate nominatives
Predicate adjectives
Complements (2)
Direct Objects and Indirect Objects occur
with action verbs:
The direct object receives the impact of the
action. Put another way, the subject enacts the
verb upon the direct object.
I baptize you with water for repentance. (Mt
3:11 NRSV). The subject (I) enacts the verb
(baptize), but it is the direct object (you) that
gets dunked.
Complements (3)
He went and took the scroll. (Rev 5:7 NRSV)
The Lamb (he) does the going and taking; the
scroll is the object affected by the Lambs actions.
The scroll is the direct object.
Bear fruit worthy of repentance. (Mt 3:8 NRSV)
In this imperative sentence, fruit is the thing
that has to be borne: it is the direct object of the
command, bear.
Complements (4)
Indirect Objects: nouns or pronouns that are the
indirect recipients of the action, often the
beneficiaries of the action (to or for whom
the action happens).
By your blood you ransomed for God saints from every
tribe and language and people and nation. (Rev 5:9
NRSV).
The subject is you; the main verb of the predicate,
ransomed,; saints are the ones actually ransomed,
hence the direct object. God is the indirect object: the
ransoming of the saints has an indirect effect on God, for
whom the action happens.
Complements (5)
God is able from these stones to raise up
children to Abraham. (Matt 3:9 NRSV)
Looking at the infinitive to raise up, the direct
object of the infinitive is children, the entities
actually raised up; the indirect object is
Abraham, to whom (i.e., in whose favor) these
children are raised up.
Complements (6)
Predicate nominatives and predicate
adjectives occur with verbs expressing
being or a state of being (also called
linking verbs).
God is able (Matt 3:9 NRSV).
Subject: God; verb: is; able is a predicate
adjective. The whole point of the sentence is to
link God with this quality, or predicate this
quality upon God.
Complements (7)
You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its seals.
(Rev 5:9 NRSV)
Subject: you; main verb: are; worthy is another
predicate adjective (followed by two complementary
infinitives, to take and to open, further describing this
worthiness).
No one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look
into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)
worthy is still a predicate adjective, since was found (=
was proven to be) is still a state of being verb.
Complements (8)
Jesus Christ is Lord (Phil 2:11 NRSV)
Subject: Jesus Christ; main verb: is; Lord is a noun
that is being predicated of Jesus Christ it is a predicate
nominative.
Sometimes a direct object can also have a
complement in the form of an adjective or noun
predicated, in effect, upon it.
You have made them a kingdom and priests to our God.
(Rev5:10ESV)
them is the direct object, but a kingdom and priests is
also specifically what God made them the phrase is an
object complement.
Kinds of Sentences
Declarative: sentences stating something (whether
fictive or real, narrative or argument).
I began to weep bitterly because no one was found
worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:4
NRSV)
Interrogative: sentences asking a question (thus
calling for some declarative statement in
response).
Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?
(Rev 5:2 NRSV)
Kinds of Sentences (2)
Sometimes an interrogative statement is in
transposed word order: the subject is most
easily found when one reformulates the
question as a statement.
What did you go out into the wilderness to look
at? (Mt11:7NRSV)
What is not the subject; it is, in fact, the object of
the preposition at. The subject is you: You
did go out into the wilderness to look at ____.
Kinds of Sentences (3)
Imperative: sentences that issue commands.
Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come
near. (Mt 3:2 NRSV)
Bear fruit worthy of repentance. (Mt 3:8 NRSV)
"Do not weep. (Rev 5:5 NRSV)
In all these examples the subject You is not
expressed, but is understood. Repent, you, for
the kingdom.
Kinds of Sentences (4)
There are 1st and 3rd person commands as well, in
which the subject will be expressed.
1st person plural: Let us hold fast to our
confession. (Heb4:14NRSV)
3rd person singular: Let him who is without sin
among you be the first to throw a stone at her.
(Jn8:7ESV)
3rd person plural: If any want to become my
followers, let them deny themselves and take up
their cross and follow me. (Mt16:24NRSV)
Nouns
Words that denote a person, place, thing, or idea
Can be proper nouns (e.g., Peter, Judea) or
common nouns (e.g., disciple, region)
Can have number: singular, disciple; plural,
disciples (note: usually there is a change of
form)
Special ending for possessive/genitive case: the
Lords day, the nations tribute
Nouns
6 Then I saw between the throne and the
four living creatures and among the elders
a Lamb standing as if it had been
slaughtered, having seven horns and seven
eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent
out into all the earth.
7 He went and took the scroll from the
right hand of the one who was seated on
the throne.
Nouns
6 Then I saw between the throne and the
four living creatures and among the elders a
Lamb standing as if it had been
slaughtered, having seven horns and seven
eyes, which are the seven spirits of God
sent out into all the earth.
7 He went and took the scroll from the
right hand of the one who was seated on the
throne.
Pronouns
Words used in place of a proper or
common noun. A pronoun generally has
an antecedent a specific noun named
earlier in the discourse for which the
pronoun is standing in.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns have person, number, and
case.

Singular (nominative): I (1st) , you (2nd) , he, she, it

(3rd)
Plural (nominative): we (1st) , you (2nd) , they (3rd)
Singular (objective): me, you, him, her, it
Plural (objective): us, you, them
Personal Pronouns
And I began to weep bitterly because no one
was found worthy to open the scroll or to
look into it.
Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not
weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah,
the Root of David, has conquered, so that
he can open the scroll and its seven seals."
Personal Pronouns
And I began to weep bitterly because no one
was found worthy to open the scroll or to
look into it.
Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not
weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah,
the Root of David, has conquered, so that
he can open the scroll and its seven seals."
Possessive Pronouns
Singular: mine, yours, his, hers, its
Plural: ours, yours, theirs

He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and

not for ours [= our sins] only but also for
the sins of the whole world. (1 John 2:2)
My beloved is mine and I am his. (Song
2:16)
Possessive Pronouns
vs. Possessive Adjectives
Pronouns: stand in for nouns he atoned
not only for their sins, but ours. Ours
stands in for the noun sins.
Adjectives: describe nouns he atoned for
our sins. Our describes a noun in the
sentence.
Intensive and Reflexive Pronouns
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Intensive: He himself was not the light, but he

came to testify to the light. (John 1:8)
Reflexive: "Is he going to kill himself? Is that what
he means by saying, 'Where I am going, you
cannot come'? (John 8:22)
Definite Relative Pronouns
Introduce subordinate clauses that, as a whole,
function as adjectives (supplying additional
information about some noun or pronoun). As
with most pronouns, the definite relative pronoun
points back to some antecedent (some noun to
which it is referring)
Who, whom (objective case of who), whose
(possessive case of who), which/that
Relative Clauses
The relative pronoun introduces a relative clause
with a verb and, often, objects, modifiers, and
prepositional phrases. The entire clause modifies
some noun or pronoun in the main sentence (the
antecedent of the relative pronoun).
A relative clause generally could have been
written as a separate sentence:
You love Lazarus.
Lazarus is sick.
He [Lazarus] whom you love is sick. (John 11:3)
Relative Pronouns (and relative
clauses)
He went and took the scroll from the right hand
of the one who was seated on the throne.
This is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke.
(Matt 3:3)
I baptize you with water for repentance, but one
who is more powerful than I is coming after me,
whose sandals I am not worthy to carry. (Matt 3:11)
Indefinitive relative pronouns
The relative pronoun can also be used
where there is no antecedent, sometimes
generalized (whoever, whatever)
Whoever denies me before others, I also
will deny before my Father in heaven.
(Matt 10:33)
Remember then what you received and
heard (Rev 3:3)
Interrogative Pronouns
Used to ask questions; no antecedent
Who? What? Which?
Who is worthy to open the scroll and
break its seals? (Rev 5:2)
Demonstrative Pronouns
Used to point out particular objects.
This, these; that, those
Nearer demonstratives: this, these
Farther demonstratives: that, those
Demonstrative Pronouns
This [= this person] is the one of whom the
prophet Isaiah spoke. (Matt 3:3)
Then one of the elders addressed me, saying,
"Who are these [=these people], robed in white,
and where have they come from? (Rev 7:13)
Blessed are those [=those people] who mourn,
for they will be comforted. (Matt 5:4)
Indefinite Pronouns
These pronouns do not refer to specific
persons or things, but rather to general
types or classes.
Anyone, anybody, anything; someone,
somebody, something; everyone,
everybody, everything; none, nobody,
nothing; all, few, many, several, etc.
Indefinite Pronouns
Blessed is anyone who takes no offense at
me. (Matt 11:6)
The kingdom of heaven may be compared
to someone who sowed good seed in his
field. (Matt 13:24)
For many are called, but few are chosen.
(Matt 22:14)
Reciprocal Pronouns
Pronouns indicating that the individual
members of a collective subject act back on
other members of the group.
One another, each other
I give you a new commandment, that you
love one another. (John 13:34)
What are you discussing with each other
while you walk along? (Luke 24:17)
Appositives
Nouns or pronouns can be used simply to rename
another noun or pronoun in the sentence. The
second noun or pronoun is said to stand in
apposition to the first, and is like a
parenthetical comment.
A Savior, Christ, the Lord, is born for you today in Davids
city (Luke 2:11)
Paul and Timothy, servants of Jesus Christ, to all the
saints. (Phil 1:1)
Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney, a
certain Tertullus, and they reported their case against
Paul. (Acts 24:1)
Verbs
Action
Jesus wept.
I saw a mighty angel.
He went and took the scroll.
State of being
no one was able.
You are worthy.
Verbs (2)
English verbs are often formed by a combination
of one or more helping verbs with a main
verb.
The Lion has conquered.
You were slaughtered.
They will reign on earth.
Helping verbs are an essential part of the
formation of the various voices, tenses, and
aspects of the English verb.
Helping Verbs Listed
Common Helping Verbs:
Do, does, did
Has, have, had
Am, are, is, were, was, be, being, been
Modal Helping Verbs
Can, could
May, might
Must
Shall, should, ought [to]
Will, would
Verbs: Person and Number
1st Person
Singular: I heal.
Plural: We heal.
2nd Person
Singular: You heal.
Plural: You (Yall) heal.
3rd Person
Singular: He, she, it heals.
Plural: They heal.
Verbs: Voice
Active: The subject of the sentence performs the
action of the verb, often upon one or more objects.
He went and took the scroll.
They will reign on earth.
Passive: The action of the verb is done to the
Subject of the sentence.
You were slaughtered.
They were baptized by him in the river Jordan.
Verbs: Tense
(all examples are in active voice)
Present
Simple: I baptize.
Progressive: I am baptizing.
Past
Simple: I baptized.
Progressive: I was baptizing.
Future
Simple: I will baptize.
Progressive: I will be baptizing.
Verbs: Tenses (2)
Present Perfect
Simple: I have baptized.
Progressive: I have been baptizing.
Past Perfect (Pluperfect)
Simple: I had baptized.
Progressive: I had been baptizing.
Future Perfect
Simple: I will have baptized.
Progressive: I will have been baptizing.
Verbs: Tenses (Passive Examples)
Present
Simple: I am baptized.
Progressive: I am being baptized.
Past
Simple: I was baptized.
Progressive: I was being baptized.
Future
Simple: I will be baptized.
Progressive: I will be being baptized. (Not regularly used.)
Verbs: Tenses (Passive Examples)
Present Perfect
Simple: I have been baptized.
Progressive: N/A
Past Perfect (Pluperfect)
Simple: I had been baptized.
Progressive: N/A
Future Perfect
Simple: I will have been baptized.
Progressive: N/A
Verbs: Moods
Indicative: Narrating Facts or Purported Facts
John was baptizing in the Jordan River.
Imperative: Giving Commands
Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near.
Subjunctive: Unreal Situations
"If this man were a prophet, he would have known who
and what sort of woman this is who is touching him, for
she is a sinner." (Luke7:39ESV)
Verbal Forms
Infinitives: the bare form of the verb
Present Active (time contemporary with or subsequent to
main verb): To heal, to save, to call
Present Passive: To be healed, to be saved, to be
called
Perfect Active (time prior to main verb): To have healed,
to have loved
Perfect Passive: To have been healed, to have been
loved
Stative: To be, to have been
Infinitives: Uses
As a noun:
Subject of verb: To live is Christ, and to die is
gain. (Phil 1:21 ESV)
What is?
Object of verb: I want to know Christ. (Phil 3:10
NRSV)
I want what?
Infinitive: Uses (2)
As an adjective:
By faith Sarah herself received power to
conceive. (Heb 11:11 NRSV)
The infinitive answers the question what kind of
power?
Infinitive: Uses (3)
As an adverb:
Abraham obeyed when he was called to go
out. (Heb 11:8 NRSV)
Supplies more information about the verb called
God is not ashamed to be called their God.
(Heb 11:16)
Supplies more information about the adjective
ashamed, perhaps giving the circumstances
Participles
Active: baptizing
While baptizing by the river, John was arrested.
Passive: baptized
Baptized by John, Peter and Andrew went out to preach.
Participles can form additional voices and tenses
with helping verbs, e.g.:
Perfect Active: having baptized
Having baptized many, Johns reputation spread.
Perfect Passive: having been baptized
Having been baptized by John, the tax collectors repented.
Participles: Usage
Adjectival Participial Clauses: the
participles describes some noun or pronoun
I saw in the right hand of the one seated on the
throne a scroll written on the inside and on the back,
sealed with seven seals (Rev 5:1 NRSV)
The participle seated introduces a clause that
further describes the one; the participles
written and sealed introduce clauses giving
additional information describing the scroll.
Participles: Usage (2)
Adverbial Participial Clauses: the participle gives more
information about the action of the main verb
These all died in faith, not having received the things promised,
but having seen them and greeted them from afar, and having
acknowledged that they were strangers and exiles on the earth. (Heb
11:13 NRSV)
[not] having received and having seen and greeted and
having acknowledged all describe under what circumstances
these all died.
They were baptized by him in the river Jordan, confessing
their sins. (Matt 3:6 NRSV)
Confessing supplies information about the circumstances
under which the people were being baptized.
Gerunds (Participles acting as Nouns)
The gerund looks like the present participle
in form: baptizing, seeing, healing
As a gerund, however, the word acts as a
simple noun, naming the particular action.
To me, living is Christ and dying is gain (Phil
1:21 NRSV).
Living and Dying are both fulfilling the role
of nouns as subjects of the verb is.
Verbals and their Complements
Participles, Infinitives, and Gerunds can
take all the complements that a normal
verb can take:
Adverbs
Direct Objects
Indirect Objects
Adverbial Prepositional Phrases
Predicate Nominatives
Adjectives
Words used to describe nouns or pronouns.
Adjectives are words that answer questions like
what kind of ____? or which _____? or how
many _____?
Attributive Adjectives (simple descriptors):
Then I saw in the right hand of the one seated on the
throne a scroll written on the inside and on the back,
sealed with seven seals; and I saw a mighty angel
proclaiming with a loud voice, Who is worthy to open
the scroll and break its seals? (Rev 5:1-2 NRSV)
Adjectives (2)
Predicate Adjectives: the point of the
sentence is to link a noun or pronoun with
a descriptor by means of a linking verb (a
form of be, become, etc.)
No one in heaven or on earth or under the earth
was able to open the scroll (Rev 5:3)
No one [S] was [V] able [Pred Adj]
No one was found worthy. (Rev 5:4)
You are worthy to take the scroll. (Rev 5:9)
Adjectives (3)
Substantive Adjectives: Adjectives can be
used as nouns, as in the title, The Good,
the Bad, and the Ugly.
Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the
earth. Blessed are the merciful, for they will
receive mercy. (Mt5:5, 7NRSV)
meek and merciful are actually adjectives.
Here it is understood that Jesus is talking about
those who are meek or the meek ones.
Adjectives (4)
Adjectives have degrees
Positive: holy, righteous, good
you are my strong refuge (Ps71:7)
Comparative: holier, more righteous, better
And the LORD made his people stronger than
their enemies (Ps105:24)
Superlative: holiest, most righteous, best
The anger of God rose against them and he killed the
strongest of them (Ps78:31)
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that give more information about
the action of the sentence i.e., the verb or about an
adjective or even another adverb. Adverbs often
answer questions like:
How?
Why?
Where?
When?
Under what circumstances?
To what degree or extent? (This is the sense in which
adverbs generally describe adjectives and other adverbs.)
Adverbs often, but do not always, end in -ly
Adverbs (2)
I began to weep bitterly because no one was
found worthy to open the scroll or to look into
it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)
How was John weeping?
I know you are enduring patiently and
bearing up for my name's sake. (Rev 2:3 ESV)
How are the believers enduring?
When the disciples heard this, they were
greatly astonished. (Matt 19:25 NIV)
To what extent were the disciples astonished?
Adverbs (3)
Like adjectives, adverbs can be compared:
Positive: bitterly
Comparative: more bitterly
Superlative: most bitterly
Irregular comparisons also exist:
Well, better, best
Little, less, least
Badly, worse, worst
Caution: When adverbs look like
prepositions
And when he had looked around at
everything, as it was already late, he went
out to Bethany with the twelve. (Mark
11:11).
Around is often used as a preposition, as in I
heard the voice of many angels around the throne
(Rev 5:11 NASU). In Mk 11:11, however,
around describes the action of looking
Where did Jesus look?
Prepositions
Prepositions stand before a noun or
pronoun (and its descriptors) to create a
prepositional phrase.
The entire prepositional phrase will
describe some other noun or pronoun in
the sentence (acting adjectivally) or the verb
in the clause to which it is related (acting
adverbially).
Prepositions (2)
Some common prepositions in
prepositional phrases (from Mt 3:1-12):
in the wilderness
from the coming wrath
to yourselves
at the root
of the trees
into the granary
with unquenchable fire
Common Prepositions
About, above, according to, across, after,
against, along, alongside [of], among, around,
at, because of, before, behind, below, beneath,
beside(s), between, beyond, by, concerning,
despite, down, during, except, for, from, in,
inside, instead of, into, like, near, of, off, on,
out of, over, past, since, through, throughout,
to, together with, toward, under, underneath,
until, unto, up, upon, up to, with, within,
without
Prepositions (3)
I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up
children to Abraham. Even now the ax is lying at
the root of the trees; every tree therefore that does
not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the
fire. (Mt 3:9-10 NRSV)
Adverbial prepositional phrases:
from these stones (giving information about the raising)
to Abraham (ditto)
at the root (where is the ax lying?)
into the fire (where is it being thrown?)
Adjectival prepositional phrase
of the trees (giving information about what root)
Prepositions (4a)
Then I saw in the right hand of the one
seated on the throne a scroll written on the
inside and on the back, sealed with seven
seals. And no one in heaven or on earth
or under the earth was able to open the
scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:1, 3 NRSV)
Prepositions (4b)
Then I saw in the right hand [adv.: where saw?]
of the one [adj.: describes what hand] seated on
the throne [adv.: where seated?] a scroll written
on the inside [adv.: how or where written?] and
on the back [adv.], sealed with seven seals [adv.:
sealed by what means or how?]. And no one
in heaven [adj.: describes one] or on earth
[adj.] or under the earth [adj.] was able to open
the scroll or to look into it [adv.: look where?].
(Rev 5:1, 3 NRSV)
Caution
Many words that can function as prepositions
can also function as other parts of speech!
Since can be a preposition, conjunction, or adverb
To can be a preposition (to the river), or it can be
part of an infinitive (to come, to sing, to look)
FUNCTION determines what a word is in a
given context
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are used to link words or
phrases together (coordinating
conjunctions), set them in relationship to
one another (correlative conjunctions), or
subordinate one clause to another, usually
giving some indication of the logical
relationship between those clauses
(subordinating conjunctions).
Conjunctions (2)
Coordinating Conjunctions: and, or, but, so,
yet:
No one in heaven or on earth or under the earth
was able to open the scroll or to look into it. Rev
5:3 NRSV)
The first two conjunctions link three prepositional
phrases together as one overarching unit of
modifiers describing one
The last conjunction links two infinitives,
connecting both as complements to was able
Conjunctions (3a)
You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its
seals, for you were slaughtered and by your
blood you ransomed for God saints from every
tribe and language and people and nation. (Rev
5:9 NRSV)
Conjunctions (3b)
You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its
seals, for you were slaughtered and by your blood
you ransomed for God saints from every tribe and
language and people and nation. (Rev 5:9 NRSV)
The first and links two infinitives as complements to
worthy (worthy of what?)
The second and links two clauses as part of the
rationale introduced by for (you were slaughtered
and you ransomed)
The last three occurrences of and link four nouns as
the common objects of the preposition from
Conjunctions (4)
Correlative (bothand, neithernor, not only
but also, eitheror):
At that time his voice shook the earth, but now he has
promised, Yet once more I will shake not only the earth
but also the heavens. (Heb 12:28 ESV)
The not onlybut also coordinates earth and heaven
as twin objects of the verb shake, while also establishing a
stronger relationship between the two objects.
Store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where
neither moth nor rust consumes and where thieves do not
break in and steal. (Matt 6:20 NRSV)
neither and nor link moth and rust as two subjects
of the verb consumes.
Conjunctions (5)
Subordinating Conjunctions (when, while,
after, before, since; where; whether; as, as if;
because; though, although; if, unless; so, so
that, in order that; as as; rather than)
Used to connect noun or adverb clauses to
some other element in the sentence
Conjunctions (6)
And I began to weep bitterly because no one was found
worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. Then one of the
elders said to me, Do not weep. See, the Lion of the
tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has conquered, so that
he can open the scroll and its seven seals. Then I saw
between the throne and the four living creatures and
among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had been
slaughtered, having seven horns and seven eyes, which
are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth.
(Rev 5:4-6 NRSV)
because introduces a subordinate clause specifying CAUSE
so that introduces a subordinate clause specifying RESULT
as if introduces a subordinate clause specifying MANNER
Conjunctive Adverbs
Not to be confused with subordinating
conjunctions, these adverbs can also be used
to indicate the relationship between
independent clauses:
Accordingly, also, anyway, besides, certainly,
consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore, hence,
however, incidentally, indeed, instead, likewise,
meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next,
nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, specifically, still,
subsequently, then, therefore, thus
Interjections
Words usually expressing surprise or emotion,
drawing attention to something or some
experience.
And those who passed by derided him, wagging
their heads and saying, Aha! You who would
destroy the temple and rebuild it in three days, save
yourself, and come down from the cross! (Mk 15:29-
30 ESV)
His disciples said, "Ah, now you are speaking
plainly and not using figurative speech! (Jn 16:29
ESV)
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses
Clauses: groups of related words containing a
subject and a verb.
Independent (or main) clauses: An independent
clause expressed a grammatically complete thought
and can stand alone as a complete sentence.
John the Baptist appeared in the wilderness of Judea.
(Matt 3:1 NRSV)
John wore clothing of camel's hair with a leather belt
around his waist, and his food was locusts and wild honey.
(Matt 3:3 NRSV) a compound of two independent
clauses.
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (2)
Dependent (subordinate) clauses: these clauses are
not complete sentences, but must always be attached
to a main (independent) clause.
because no one was found worthy to open the scroll

or to look into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)

so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals.

(Rev 5:5 NRSV)

as if it had been slaughtered. (Rev 5:6 NRSV)

In each of these three examples, there is a subject

(bold) and verb (italic), but none can stand as a
complete sentence.
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (3)
By faith Sarah herself received power to
conceive, even when she was past the age,
since she considered him faithful who had
promised. (Heb 11:11 NRSV)
By faith Sarah herself received power to conceive.
(Main clause; could stand alone as a complete
sentence)
even when she was past the age (Subordinate
clause)
since she considered him faithful who had
promised (Subordinate clause)
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (4)
Phrases:
These are related groups of words that do not contain
both a subject and a verb, e.g., prepositional phrases
and participial phrases.
in the right hand

of the one

seated on the throne

sealed with seven seals

proclaiming with a loud voice

having seven horns and seven eyes

into all the earth

Functions of Subordinate Clauses
Adjectival (most often involving relative clauses
introduced by relative pronouns)
This is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke. (Matt 3:3
NRSV)
Every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and
thrown into the fire. (Matt 5:10 NRSV)
One who is more powerful than I is coming after me. (Matt 5:11
NRSV)
These can be introduced also by where, when,
why, and whose
He has risen. Come and see the place where he lay. (Matt
28:6 NIV) Still answers the question, What place?
Functions of Subord. Clauses (2)
Adverbial
Temporal (when does the action of the main clause take
place?)
When he had taken the scroll, the four living creatures and
the twenty-four elders fell before the Lamb. (Rev 5:8 NRSV)
Location (where does the action of the main clause take
place?)
You knew that I reap where I have not sowed and gather
where I scattered no seed. (Matt 25:26 ESV)
Manner (by what means or in what manner does the action
of the main clause take place?)
I saw a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered.
(Rev 5:6 NRSV)
Functions of Subord. Clauses (3)
Cause (for what reason does the action of the main clause
take place?)
I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to
open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)
Concession (despite what does the action of the main clause
take place?)
Although he was a son, he learned obedience from what he
suffered. (Heb 5:8 NIV)
Condition (under what circumstances would the action of
the main clause take place?)
If anyone hears my voice and opens the door, I will come in and
eat with him, and he with me. (Rev 3:20 NIV)
Functions of Subord. Clauses (4)
Purpose (to what end does the action of the main
clause take place?)
They watched Him, and sent spies who pretended
to be righteous, in order that they might catch Him in
some statement. (Luke 20:20 NASU)
Result (to what effect did the action of the main
clause take place?)
The Lion of the tribe of Judah has conquered, so
that he can open the scroll and its seven seals. (Rev 5:5
NRSV)
Functions of Subord. Clauses (5)
Noun Clauses: the clause as a whole plays a role usually
assigned to a noun (like subject, direct object, object of a
preposition).
When he heard that Archelaus was reigning over Judea in place of
his father Herod, he was afraid to go there. (Matt 2:22 ESV) the
whole that clause is the direct object of he heard
What you sow must die before it is given new life (1 Cor 15:36
NJB) What you sow functions, as a whole, as the subject of
the sentence.
Note: because noun clauses often play an integral role in
the main clause, they are often not separable from the
main clause (as adjectival and adverbial clauses are).