Ctoa^ter Boundary-Value Problems in Electrostatics I

* The correct Green function is not necessarily easy to be found.

* 3 techniques to electrostatic boundary value problems:

(1) the method of images

(2) expansion in orthogonal functions

(3) finite element analysis (numerical method)

2.1 Method of Images o=o
* The method deals with the problem of
point charges in the presence of boundary
surfaces, eg, conductors either grounded
or held at fixed potentials.

* Infer from the geometry of the situation

that some suitably placed charges, extern
to the region of interest, can simulate the
boundary conditions. The charges are called image charges.

J The method replaces the actual problem with boundaries by an enlarged region
with image charges but not boundaries.
 2.2 Point Charge in the Presence of
a Grounded Conducting Sphere
* A point charge is outside a grounded conducting
sphere. Find the potential ( $ (|x| = a) = 0 ).

J By symmetry the image charge q1 will lie on the ray

from the origin to the charge q, then

1
$( x) = q +_ q
4ne 0

1 q q
( +
4ne 0 xnyn'xny'n
t_r

4 n e 0 $ (x = a) =
0 -+ =0

a nyn'/ y' n ' a n / y

2

q=q ya a aa '
y= ,q=q
ay ay yy

J As q is closer to the sphere, the q 1 grows and moves out from the center of the
sphere.

J When q is just outside the surface of the sphere, q 1 is equal and opposite in and
lies just beneath the surface.
 derivative of ^ at the surface:

d<P
a = e
0
dx x=a

2
_q a (a y )
2 2 \ 3
4 n a 1 V( y2 2 ay cos y + az)
^ It is easy to show by direct
integration that the total
induced charge on the
sphere is equal to the
magnitude of the image 4na2<J
-q

charge according to Gauss's law.

J For the force on the charge q,

write down the force between q
and q' y y' = y (1
a
)
y
2

F
q ay
2 2
4 n eo (y 2 a )
2

r^
* The alternative method for the force is to calculate the total force acting on the
surface of the sphere
2 22 2 \ 2

J J /
2 / 2
d a = ^ a ) cos y d a = -- ay
F| = dF= 2 2
32 n2 e0 J (y z + az 2 ay cos y) 0 ( y 2 a2 )2
3
2e 0
4 ne

^ The whole discussion has been based on

dF = (o 2 / 2 e Q ) d a
the understanding that - is outside the sphere.
Actually, the results apply equally for -
inside the sphere.
 2.3 Point Charge in the Presence of a Charged, Insulated,
Conducting Sphere
* Consider an insulated conducting sphere with total charge Q in the presence of
a point charge q.

* Start with the grounded conducting sphere (with its charge q 1 distributed over
its surface). Then disconnect the ground wire and add to the sphere an amount of
charge (Q - q1). This brings the total charge on the sphere up to Q.

* The added charge (Q - q1) will distribute

itself uniformly over the surface. Then
a _a lq = 3

-q Q + -q. p
qy y*
4 n e 0 $ (x) = 2
x -y a 1
x- y
2
y ___1_ 11 1 11
3 4 5
yla
* The force acting on the charge q can be 0

written down from Coulomb's law

3 22 2 2 \
1 q q a (2 y a )
F= Q 2 2
y(y2a
2
2)
4ne oy

-5
JIn the limit of y a, the force reduces to the usual Coulomb's law for two small
charged bodies. But close to the sphere the force is modified because of the
induced charge distribution on the surface of the sphere.

* If the sphere is charged oppositely to q, or is uncharged, the force is attractive

at all distances.

* Even if the charge Q is the same sign as q, the force becomes attractive at very
close distances.

close to the sphere, at

y - a 1+1. q
2\ Q
* This example explains why an excess of charge on the surface does not leave the
surface because of mutual repulsion of the individual charges. *

* As soon as an element of charge is removed from the surface, the image force
tends to attract it back.
2.4 Point Charge Near a Conducting Sphere at Fixed Potential
* The potential is the same as for the charged sphere, except that the charge
( Q - q1) at the center is replaced by a charge 4ne 0 Va
1 q aq 1 qay
*( x) = +V-F= aV
y
2
4 n e, x y a x y 4 n ^ o y
( 2 a2 )2 y
y xy
2
y
i+1 q
For 4nc0aV q, the unstable equilibrium point: y a 2 4n e aV
0
2.5 Conducting Sphere in a Uniform Electric Field by Method of
Images
* Consider a conducting sphere of radius a in a uniform electric field. A uniform
field can be thought of as being produced by appropriate positive and negative

with Q/R2 constant, this

approximation becomes exact.
e
* A conducting sphere is
+Q A
A - Q
placed at the origin, the z~ R a 2
V _ C 2 2 =2 ?
potential will be that due 2
\ fl
\ A = r
z
R
to the charges and their
images (b)
Q aQ
4 n c0 ^ =
r 2 + R2 + 2 r R cos 6 r 2 R2 + a 4 + 2 a 2 r R cos 6
Q
+
aQ
V r +R
2 2 2 r R cos 6 2o^r~RcoS6
 ForRr: 4 n c $ = 2Q r
a
cos 0 +
n
2
R2 r

a
To the limit 2Q/4ne0R2 becomes the applied uniform field: =E 0
r
2
cos 0
r

* The 1st term (-E0z) is the potential of a uniform field. The 2nd is the potential due
to the induced surface-charge density or, equivalently, the image charges.
2
a a
* The image charges form a dipole of strength D = Q X 2 = 4 n e 0
E 0 a3
R R

d < P
The induced surface-charge density a = e0 = 3 e 0 E 0 cos 0
d r
r = a

* the surface integral of this charge density vanishes, so that there is no

difference between a grounded and an insulated sphere.
2.6 Green Function for the Sphere;
General Solution for the Potential
* The potential due to a unit source and its image,
chosen to satisfy homogeneous boundary conditions,
is the Green function appropriate for Dirichlet
or Neumann boundary conditions.

* For Dirichlet boundary conditions on the

sphere, the Green function for a unit
source and its image is *
1 a x
xx *
' CN|

G
')=
22 1
x + x 2 x x cos
*y
a
X
2 2.4 2
xx + a 1 2 x x a cos y
* The symmetry in the variables is obvious, as is the condition that G = 0 if either
x or x1 is on the surface of the sphere.

* For solutions of a Poisson equation we need not only G, but also dG/dn'
22
d G a x

3
8n' x a V( x + a
= 2 2 2 ax cos
a y)
* The condition is essentially the induced surface-charge density.

* The solution of the Laplace equation outside a sphere with the potential
specified on its surface is
( 2 2
- a ) _ d a'
J#(a, e 0 ')
x

a (x
<P{x) =
4n u V(x 2 + a2 2 ax cos y)3

where cos y = cos e cos e ' + sin e sin e ' cos (0 0 ')

22
dG x a
For the interior problem,
dn' x a V( x + a
= 2
2 2 ax cos
a y)3

$(x) = ( $ ( a , e ' , 0 ') a (a x ) da'

4n V(x 2 + a 2 2 a x cos y)3

* For a problem with a charge distribution, we must add to the potential integral
the appropriate charge density with the Green function.
 2.7 Conducting Sphere with Hemispheres at Different Potentials
* The solution for the potential is
2n \ 1 l 2 . 2\ j ^ , 0 i 2 .2'
V 2n 1 a (x2 a2) d cos 0 ' a (x2 a ) d cos 0 '
$(x> 0 , 0) = I d 0 I = = 3
|
2 3
4n0 0 V(x + a 2 ax cos y) V( x + a 2 ax cos y)
1

2 2 2n 1
V a (x a ) 2 . 2 3/ 2 /2 .2 3/2 i
= I d 0 ' I d cos 0 ' [ (x + a 2 ax cos y) (x + a + 2 ax cos y) J
4n 0 o

the integral cannot in general be integrated + V

in closed form.

the positive z axis

cos y = cos 0 ' <= 0=0 -V

22

# (z) = V 1 za ^=V z=a

z
22
Vz+a ^ 3 V a 2 / 2 z2 z

denominator in power series and integrate term by term a x

a =
22
.

x+a
TT (2 2) /2 n ^1 ^

$ = -j== a I d 0' I d cos 0 ' [ (1 2 a cos y)3/ 2 (1 + 2 a cos y)3 /2 J

4 n V (x2 + a2)3 J 0 J 0
* in the expansion of the radicals only odd powers of acosy will appear

(1 2 a cos y ) dlz (1 + 2 a cos y ) 61A = 6 a cos y + 35 a3 cos3 y +

J20 nd 01 ' J 0 cos y d cos 0 ' = n cos 0

2 n
Jo d 0 ' J cos3 y d cos 0 ' = n cos 0 (3 cos2 0)

3 a (x2 a 2) V 1 + 35 a2 (3 cos2 0) +
$ (x , 0,0) = a cos 0 in a
24
2 2 \
7a 5 3^3 a
cos 0 cos 0--cos 0 + in
12 2 x 2
2 x2 22 x

only odd powers of cos0 appear, as required by the symmetry of the problem.

JFor large values of x/a this expansion converges rapidly and so is a useful
representation for the potential. *

* It is easily verified that, for cos0=l, this expression agrees with the expansion of
the expression for the potential on the axis.
2.8 Orthogonal Functions and Expansions
* The orthogonal set chosen depends on the symmetries or near symmetries
involved.

* Consider an interval (a, b) in a variable with a set of real or complex

orthonormal functions Un(). The orthogonality condition is

a
fu* () U () d = 5
n m n m

* An arbitrary function can be expanded in a series of the orthonormal functions

ro

f () = Z a * eness of the function set

n
= 1
ro

= Z jV( ') f ( ') d '

b ,

U* () a
n
=j u n () f () d
a

n = 1
ro

Z U*( ') U () = 5( ' ) = closure relation or completeness

n = 1

* The most famous orthogonal functions are the sines and cosines, an expansion
in terms of them being a Fourier series.
2 . 2 n m x 2 2 nm x _ raan
* The orthonormal functions are sin cos for x e I , I
1
\ a a ') a a 2 2J
* the constant function is -i= for m = 0
a
* A function is customarily written in the form:
ro

. 2nm x . 2 nm x
f (x)=2 A0+ Z m =
A cos + B sin

1
m m

a a

2 a1 2 , > 2nmx
a / 2 2 n m x
m
where A = | f (x) cos d x, B =2 J m J
f (x) sin d x
a a /2 a/2 a a u a/2 a a

* Suppose that the space is 2d, and the variable ranges over the interval (a, b)
while the variable n has the interval (c,d). The orthonormal functions in each
dimension are Un() and Vm(n). Then the expansion of an arbitrary function is
J
f ( , *) = ZZ a n m Un
( ) Vm ^
a
b d

.
.

n m a d d n Un () V m n) f (
( , n)

n m

(a , b) ^ (ro , ro) ^ U m (x) ^ U ( m , x )

J b ro
U* n (x) Um (x) d x ^ J U * ( n , x ) U ( m , x ) d x = 5 ( m n ) ^ 6 m n
. 2 m n x
1 z

For Fourier integral, start with: Um (x) = -j=- e

a
m = 0, 1, 2,
a x e (a / 2, a / 2)
2mnx .2 m n x '
A =1 J
ro
a/2
1
f(x) Z Ae
a
m J e
a

f(x') d x'
Va -a / 2
m

a m = ro
 2nm
k
a

z - j
TO

a j TO

^ a TO d m dk
-TO
2n -TO

2n
A
m V A (k)
a

TO
^ f (x 1 = 7 j"
^ A (k)
i
k
x
e d k A (k) = =
1

Ie i k x f (x) d x
1 V2 n J TO V 2 n ~TO
2 n
I T O
1 TO
e i ( k k ' ) x d x = 5(k k') , I eik(x x ' ) d k = S(x x')
TO 2 n J TO
(orthogonality condition) * (completeness relation)

* The 2 continuous variables x and k are complete equivalent.

2.9 Separation of Variables;
Laplace Equation in Rectangular Coordinates
* Equations involving the three-dimensional Laplacian operator are known to be
separable in 11 different coordinate systems.

discuss only 3 of these rectangular, spherical, and cylindrical.

02 $ 02 < P 02 $
The Laplace equation in rectangular coordinates: 22
+ +
2
= 0
o x o y 0 z
1 d2 X 1 d 2 Y 1 d 2 Z
assume $( x, y , z) = X (x) Y ( y) Z (z) 2+2+2=0
X d x2 Y d y 2 Z d z 2
* hold for arbitrary values of the independent coordinates, each of the 3 terms
must be separately constant:
2 2 2
1 d2 X 2 1 d 2 Y o 1 d2 Z 2 o
= a 2,--- = -jS2,--- = a 2 + 02 $ = eia x ei +Sz
S y Va
e
2
X d x' Ydy Zdz

By linear superposition, the solution can construct a very large class of solutions
to the Laplace equation. *

* To determine a and S it is necessary to impose specific boundary conditions on

the potential.
* To find the potential everywhere inside the box,
0 ( x = 0, y , z) =0 X = sin a x
$ = Vfrj)
Z as c
0( x,y = 0, z) = 0 ^ Y = sin $ y
J
0 (x , y , z = 0) = 0 Z = sinh ( a2 + $2 z)
nn f = 0
a =-
0 (x = a , y , z ) = 0 ^ n a

0 (x , y = b , z ) = 0 mn
$ =
m
b
X = fl

0 = sin (a x) sin ($ y) sinh ( J a2 + $2 z)

n m v n m n ' m
f0
f

0( x -.y,z) = Z A .....
n m nm
0

n , m = 1

= Z A sin (a x) sin ($ y) sinh ( J a2 + $2 z)

nm n m n m
n , m = 1
f

0 (x , y , z = c) = V (x,y) ^ V (x , y) = Z Anm sin (anx) sin ($my) sinh + $2c)

n , m = 1

4 J a b

^ A =- , J0 dx J d y V (x , y) sin ( $m y)
J
a x) sin (
0 0 n

m ab s i n h ( c a 2 + $ 2 )
n m
* If the rectangular box has potentials different from zero on all 6 sides, the
required solution for the potential inside the box can be obtained by a linear
superposition of six solutions, one for each side. *

* The problem of the solution of the Poisson equation, i.e., the potential inside the
box with a charge distribution inside, as well as prescribed boundary conditions
on the surface, requires the construction of the appropriate Green function.
2.10 A 2d Potential Problem; Summation of a Fourier Series

separation of variables of the 2d^ !

Laplace equation in Cartesian
coordinates, in which the
potential is independent of z,
$ ~ elax e ay = or C
Boundary conditions:
$ ( x = 0, y ) = $ ( x = a , y ) = 0
$ (x , y = ro) = 0 sis

$(x, y = 0) = V
n n

nn y

$ = Z A, a
sin nnx
a
nnx

: . .. , , ; , ..; ,
 n ny
4 V nnx
$( x,y) = X e a
sin
1.0
a

ny
4V nx a
$ a
e sin tor y >
n a n
0.8

J the smooth behavior in x of the

asymptotic solution sets in for y a,
regardless of the complexities of $(x,0) 0.6

sin 6 = 3 ( e 6) $ (x> y)
i n n
4V ( x +iy)
^ $ = 3(X
a

e
n odd n n 0.4

4 V Z\ ( x +iy)
X ^
a

3 ( ) Z e
n n odd n

7 z z
2 3 4 0,2
ln (1 + Z) = Z - + - +
2 3 4

Zn 1 1+Z , 1 +Z
^ X = ln = ln
n odd n 2 1-Z \ 1-Z
x/a
$( x , y ) = ^-V 3 ln
1 + Z
n 1-Z
* Since the imaginary part of a logarithm is equal to the phase of its argument,
1 + Z_ 1 -|Z|2 + 2 i 3 ( Z ) uu _ 1 + Z -i 2 3(Z)
2
the phase of the argument of ln = tan
1-Z 1-Z 1-Z 1-Z

nx nx
sin sin
^/ \ 2 V -1 a 1 a n
0 ( x , y ) = tan 0 tan <
2
n
sinh y sinh y
a a

* The real or the imaginary part of an analytic function satisfies the Laplace
equation in two dimensions as a result of the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
2.11 Fields and Charge Densities in 2d Corners and Along Edges
* The geometry suggests use of polar
rather than Cartesian coordinates.

* The Laplace equation:

1 a ap +4
P a<t>
^ =o
pap 2 2

* Separation of variables:
$(P , 0 )=R (p)y(0 )
2
p d , d R, 1 d Y _
(p ) + = 0
RdpdpYd0 JC

p d , d R, 1 d2 Y
(P )
2, 2
v v
Rdpdp Yd0
+ b p but for v = 0
R (p) a p R (p) = ao + b o ln p
Y (0) = A cos (v 0) + B sin (v 0) Y (0) = Ao + Bo 0

integer or zero to ensure that the potential is single-valued ^ B o = o

* The general solution:

0 (p . 0) = ao + bo ln p + X [ P" sin (n 0 + an ) + bn pn sin (n 0 + 0n )]

n=1
* If there is no charge at the origin, all the b n are zero. If the origin is excluded,
the bn can be different from zero.

* The logarithmic term is equivalent to a line charge on the axis with charge
density per unit length A = -2nc0b0 .

$ { p , 0) = $ { p , 0) = V ^ b0 = B0 = b = A = 0, sin (v 0) = 0 = v = , m = 1,2,
0
TO mn
< P ( p , A) =aVp+"X
m
sin a m p0 sin

m=1 0
* The undetermined coefficients a m depend on the potential remote from p = 0.

For small enough p only the 1st term in the series will be important.
n

5p a n 1 ,l 1 nA
p =
0

n E sin
0 nA
0 0
^ (p , A) V + a 1 p 0 s i n
0 1 a 1n 7 1
n

nA
E A = p cos
0
p5A 0
n-1
0 a 1 n 0
a (p, 0) = a (p , 0) = 0 E^ (p , 0) surface charge density
0
 0 all vary
with distance as p n/-1 .

* For a very deep corner (small ) the power of p becomes very large, and no
charge accumulates in such a corner.
* When > n, the 2d corner becomes an edge and the field and the surface-
charge density become singular as p ^ 0 .
* The 2d electrostatic considerations apply to many 3d situations, even with time-
varying fields. *

* The singular behavior of the fields near sharp edges is the reason for the
effectiveness of lightning rods.
2.12 Introduction to Finite Element Analysis for Electrostatics

* FEA encompasses a variety of numerical approaches for the solution of

boundary-value problems in physics and engineering.
* Use Galerkin's method for 2d electrostatics as an illustration.

* Consider the Poisson equation, V 2 y=g ina2d region R, with Dirichlet

boundary conditions on the boundary curve C
* The vanishing integral f [ V 2 y + g ] $ dxdy = 0 = $ ( ) : test function

R $ ( x
C yC) =0
^ fR [ Vy- V $ g $ ]dxdy=0 = Green's 1st identity on the
1st term
* Approximate y by a finite expansion of a set of localized, linearly independent
functions, $ i j ( x , y ) , with support only in a finite neighborhood of x=x iV y=y/-.

Imagine the region R spanned by a square lattice with spacing h, then a possible
choice for $j is, $ij ( x > y)
(1 |x x.|/h) ( 1 |y y.|/h) for xx
l
h , |y y |h
;

0 otherwise
N
(x , y) = 1 ^ y ( x , y ) - Z r j ( x , y ) = N0 = number of lattice sites

lj lj
l / l , j including the boundary
* the constant coefficients i j may be thought of as the approximate values of
^(x i , y j ). If the lattice spacing h is small enough, the expansion will be a good
approximate to the true 0 , provided the coefficients are chosen properly.

* choose the test function 0 to be the (i,j)th function on the expansion set, for
0 i, j N (number of internal sites). Assume g(x,y) varies slowly, then
Nn

Z k t V0 (j . ( x , y )'V 0 k t
( x ,y) d x d y = g ( xi,yj ) f R
0; j ( , y) d
x x d y (1 )
k, t
N coupled inhomogeneous linear algebraic equations for the N unknowns, k t .

* The coupling among k t is confined to a small number

of sites near ( x^y,-) for the localized function 0,- { k , l)
1f 1

ij
i
f
0
ij
(x
, y) d xd
y =h 2
a, j)
II
\
^

II
'-H

CO
* Eq (1) can be written in matrix form:
K : N X N matrix
K= G
and G : N -column vectors
* Since K is a sparse matrix,
the solution can be rapidly
found by special numerical techniques.

* A triangle is more optimal as a basic unit in 2d than a square.

3

* The triangular element shoud be small enough that the

field variable change little such that

vertices to determine (A,B,C).

1
(xa, yx)
To be systematic, define 3 shape
that N e . (x = x j , y = y ) = 1 only.
functions N/(x,y) at the vertices such
a +b x +c y =1
1 1 1 1 1

Consider N \ = a 1 + b 1 x + c1 y ^
a +b x +c y =0
1 1 2 1 2

a +b x +c y =0
1 1 3 1 3
 1x i yi
* The determinant D = (x - x )(y - y i) - ( x -
2 1 3 3 x i ) -( yy 1 ) =12 X13
2
1 x2 y2
1x3 y3

* D is invariant under rotations of the triangle, and

x 2 y 3- x 3 y 2 y 2- y
,b1 3
a
2S 2 S
D = 2 S = S : area of the triangle e
e

x 3 -x 2
2S
other N j can be known by cyclic permutation of indices.
3 3 3 3

XN (x , y ) = 1 , X a . = 1 , X b. = 0 , X C = 0
i = 1 i = 1 i=1 i= 1

1 x + X + x.
a.+ bx + cy = (j = 1,2,3) where x = 2 3 ,y= y 1 +y + y 2 3

j j e j e 3 e 3 ^e 3

j
/ (x,y)
The field variable v(x,y) has the expansion: V (x , y )^ X ^ j N
where/: triangle number

* Because of the linearity of the shape functions, the value along the common
side of the two triangles from either re presentation is the same weighted
average of the values at each end.
 choose the test function $(x,y)=N/(x,y) for some element e and vertex i, then
Z Y e fe V N e-V N d x d y = egNei d x d y ^ g (x
e , y e ) JeN,e d x d y (2)
j =1
f Ne d x d y = S ( a . + b x + c y ) = S /3
ei ^ evii e 1 ^ e' e

d Ne a N
L = b, c. k e , = f V N e- V N e d x d y = S ( b b . + c c . )
ije i evi1 ij
a 1 a y1 j
1

0 1
7

x
1 e i j i j
2
* KKe e 1j s only depend on the shape of triangle, not in the orientation
ii

or size.
3 S g
(2) Zk* Yj = (i = g e = 1,2,3)
g ( x e^ y e)
j=1 3