PT10603 PERSONALITY

AND INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Abnormal psychology
Studies the causes, treatment &
consequences of psychological
disorders/ mental illnesses such
as depression, anxiety &
psychoses
 Differential psychology attempts
to explain between individual
Personality refers to individual
differences in general/ normal
behavior
Psychopathology focuses on
abnormality
ABNORMALITY

Conventional criteria for

defining abnormality
Statistical deviance- an approach
that conceptualizes abnormality in
terms of behaviors that are
extreme, rare/ unique as opposed
to typical
 Social norm approach
A rule/ guideline determined by
cultural factors for what kind of
behavior is considered appropriate
in social contexts
E.g. some governments condemn
the consumption of alcoholics
drink, whereas others have very
relaxed attitudes towards drug
 Personal distress
Individuals level of suffering takes
into consideration and whether
they want to get rid of the
suffering
Disadvantages : abnormality is not
always associated with subjective
suffering or the experience of
discomfort
 Maladaptiveness
The extent to which behavior
interferes with a persons capacity
to carry out everyday tasks such
as studying/ relating to others
E.g. anxiety disorders such as
phobias, panic attack & obsessive-
compulsive disorder
 Mental illness approach
An approach to psychological disorder
that integrates physical &
psychological variables in order to
understand the processes underlying
abnormal behavior
Clinical psychologists & psychiatrists
focus on specific symptoms that meet
the criteria for predefined diagnosis
HISTORICAL

Hippocrates, the Greek philosopher

& physician credited with the
invention of medicine, believed in
the connection between
psychological & physical disorders
He explained pathologies which
were common disorders in ancient
Greek society.
 Psychological illness was
attributed to a physiological
dysfunction.
Psychological symptoms have
physiological causes is
represented by the somatogenic
approaches to psychopathology
 Plato: disorders are
intrapsychical (all in the mind)
conflicts & embedded in some
of the salient psychogenic
theories of abnormal
psychology.
All in the mind
 Psychopathology did not develop as
major area of psychology until the
beginnings of the twentieth century
Symptoms were regarded as the
expression of supernatural forces
that controlled the individuals mind
& body
Treated through obscure rituals
Exorcism & shamanism
 Ancient Egyptians: have special
temples for the mentally ill &
performed rituals & included the
use of opium to reduce pain.
Behavioral abnormalities treated
with violence
Mentally ill individuals were
marginalized
 Nolen- Hoeksema, (2001)- in 1484 -
possessed individuals to be burned
alive.
Bedlam, established in 1243- 1800,
the first formal attempt at
psychopathological hospitalization
1970, Phillippe Pinel (1745-1826)
proposed the moral treatment for
mental disorders & categorize
symptoms.
Modern Approaches
Somatogenic by Wilhelm Griesinger
(1817-1868)
Brain pathology was the cause of
all mental disorders
Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926)- first
classification of symptoms, labeling
and describing different
psychological disorders
Case Phineas Gage- how strutural
changes in the brain may impair
normal psychological functioning
 Franz Anton Mesmer )(1734-
1815) believed psychological
disorders to be the expression
of psychical rather than physical
factors & caused by magnetic
fluids astrological energy
force inside peoples body.
Developed a hypnotic method -
mesmerism
 Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893)
believed that psychological
disorders were caused by a
degeneration of the brain,
nonetheless experimented with
mesmerism.
Found that patients experienced
substantial relief after being able to talk
about their symptoms under hynopsis.
Catharsis
Psychoanalysis &
Psychodynamic theories
Freuds studies hysterical disorder
Development of psychoanalysis/
psychodynamics (exploration of the
unconscious)
Unconscious intrapsychical origin to
mental ilness.
All behaviors are influenced by
unconscious processes
Used to understand human behavior
(philosophy, literature & sociology)
 Psychopathological symptoms as a
compromise between unconscious
and conscious forces that represents
a symbolic expression or repressed
events.
Treatments may last for 10/20 years
Based on case studies & is largely
untestable
Based on circular interpretations &
speculative theories not robust &
representative empirical evidence
Behaviorism

In the first half of the twentieth

century while psychoanalysis was
gaining momentum in Europe
Study of empirically observable
behavior
Uninterested in hypothetical
psychodynamic conflicts
Symptoms would be a consequence
of reinforcing/ punishing specific
behaviors
 Witmer (1867-1956) imported to the
US the techniques he learned in
Germany from Wilhelm Wundt
First experimental clinic - study of the
deficiencies in children
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) & John
Watson (1878-1958) applied the
principles of classic conditioning to
the study of phobias
 Thorndike (1874-1949) Skinner
(1904-1909)= rewarding
desirable behaviors was more
effective than punishing
undesirable ones (operant
conditioning)
Cognitive

Emerged in 1960s & 1970s-

attempted to understand the
internal mental processes
(cognitions)
Peoples subjective
interpretations of events can
have a direct impact on their
behavior & emotion.
 Bandura (1896) conceptualized
this idea as self efficacy
(individuals belief about the
extent to which they can
successfully execute the
appropriate behaviors to control
& influence important life
events)
 Ellis (1973)= Rational Emotive
Therapy, conceptualizes illness
as the result of irrational
negative beliefs about oneself &
the world
Dryden & DiGiuseppe (1990),
role of therapist= changes in the
patients beliefs
Biological approaches
Divided into :
Nerophysiology- dealing with the
processes/ functions of the brain.
Neuroanatomy- dealing with the
structure of the brain
Neurotransmitter (chemical
messenger that carry information
between neurons & other cells
Imbalance=psychological disorders
 Eg.serotonin affects emotion &
impulse regulation ; dopamine
levels have been linked to
psychosis & schizophrenia
Endocrine system (production &
release of hormones) in the
blood= affect mood, levels of
energy & reactions to stress
The Biophychosocial
Model
A multidisiplinary approach ro
psychopathology based on the
idea that mental illness results
from combination of biological,
psychological, environmental &
social factors.
 Diathesis- stress model (some
people possess an enduring,
inherited vulnerability which is
likely to result in psychological
disorder when they experience
an unbearable life event
Diagnosis

2 frameworks:
1) Idiographic
adopted by psychoanalytic &
psychodynamic theories)
Emphasizes the singularity of
mental illness
Assumes psychological disorders
to be manifested differently in
every individual
2) Nomothetic
preestablished categories &
compare every case with
previously defined, described &
classified psychological
disorders
 2 taxonomies diagonosing
mental disorders
ICD- International Classification
of Diseases, Injuries & Causes
of death (WHO,1992)
DSM- Diagnostic & Statistical
Manual Of Mental Disorder
(APA,1994)
 Diagnosis in DSM are based on:
Some core symptoms that need to
be present
Prespecified periods of time for
symptoms to be present &
sometimes
Symptoms that should not be
present
Major Psychological
Disorders
Schizophrenia
Psychotic disorder characterized by
the patients lack of insight & loss of
contact with reality & episodic
Unable to distinguish between inner
& external reality
Severe thinking & perception
impairment
 Syndromes:
Hallucinations (fake perceptions)
Delusions (false beliefs)
Disorganied speech
Diorganized behavior
Negative symptoms
Passivity
Neurocognitive deficits
 Experience more than one of the
syndromes
Conceptualized by Kraepelin as
early madness
Not involved double personality &
aggressive manner
Types : catatonic, hebephrenic &
paranoidresidual &
undifferentiated
 Catatonic-Kinetic abnormalities
Hebephrenic-Disorganized thought disorder
& decreased affect
Paranoid- vivid & horrifying hallucinations
(thought disorder & disorganized behavior)
Residual- Positive symptoms (the presence
of something unusual-delusions,
hallucinations & thought disorder)
Undifferentiated- Symptoms which are not
representative of any other type of
schizophrenia)
 Treated by antipsychotic/
neuroleptic drugs
Cognitive therapy +
antipsychotic drugs can help to
reduce hallucination &
delusions
Affective Disorders

Exaggerated intensity of mood

experiences throughout long periods
of time
Unrelated/ disproportionate
reactions to external life real- life
events
Depression- persistent low mood (eg
speech reduction, lack of joy, often
suicidal, feeling of guilt, pessimistic)
Learned helplessness & hopelessness
 Mania- opposite extreme of affect than
depression
Exacerbated elevated mood & an inappropriate
sense of well-being\
Eg. Optimism, over confidence
Abnormal talk & speech (eg. inconsistency &
incoherent)
Psychotic symptoms (delusions of grandeur)
Manic behavior- overactivity & increased sexual
& aggressive impulses
Treated with lithium & antipsychotics
& hospitalization
Anxiety disorders &
obsessional states
Experience of high levels of
anxiety
Anxiety can be experienced
psychologically (eg. unpleasant
& dreadful feelings) &
somatically (muscular tension &
increased heart attack)
 Common anxiety disorders is
phobias (experience of irrational/
disproportionate fear of an object/
phobic stimulus that leads
individual to avoid contact with that
object
Treatment: systematic
desensitization (progressive
exposure to the phobic object)
 Obsessive-compulsive disorder-
a disorder characterized by
intense & repetitive obsessions
that generate anxiety
Tends to start in early adulthood
Rituals to relieve the individual
from anxiety
Causes of phobias
Psychodynamic-conflict between
unconscious sexual/ aggressive
impulses & social/culture norms
Behaviors- induced in humans as in
animals through association &
conditioning
Cognitive- sensitive/ have more
vulnerable schemas to interpret events
Biological- a ubiquitous human emotion
Neuropsychological- overactivity of the
noradrenaline neurotransmitters is
associated with anxiety attacks whilst
serotonin has been associated with
the adaptational function of preparing
the individual for danger & stress
Diathesis-stress model- psychological &
biological
Eating disorders
Exacerbated worry about food, body shape,
weight & related physical symptoms
Related to cultural, economic & social
factors- experience of anxiety
Anorexia (1. a serious & permanent concern
about ones body shape, weight & thinness,
2. an active pursuit & maintenance of low
body weight, 3 the absence of menstrual
periods in female- disturbance of hormonal
status)
 Associated with anxiety fail to
stop from eating.
Anorexia individuals quiet,
unassertive, anxious, and
sexually inexperienced.
Also tend to be ambitious and
achievement-oriented, but have
low self estee.
 Bulimia nervosa- person to
indulge in alcohol & drugs
consumption
Treatment: psychotherapy &
psychopharmacological drugs
Treatment- group/ family in
treatment
Personality Disorders

A persistent pattern of thinking,

feeling & behaving that deviates
from cultural expectations &
impairs a persons educational,
occupational & interpersonal
functioning
Begins at early age, are stable over
time & are pervasive & inflexible
DSM
Cluster A: antisocial, borderline,
narcissistic & histrionic- odd & eccentric
behaviors as well as disregard for others
Cluster B: schizotypal, schizoid & paranoid-
dramatic, erratic & emotional behavior
Cluster C- avoidant, obsessive-compulsive,
dependent & passive-aggressive-anxious
&fearful behaviors
Combination of the Big 5
with personality disorder
+ve correlation: Neuroticism (N)
-ve correlation: Agreeableness (A)
& Conscientiousness
Variable in direction & strength:
Extraversion (E) & Openness (O)
Eg. Histrionic personality disorder-
higher in E, avoidant personality
disorder- lower in E
Conclusions

Modern conceptualizations of
normality are based on
statistical frequency, personal
distress, social norms &
maladaptiveness
Diagnostic approach: clinical
psychology & psychiatry
 Causes of psychological
disorders: genetics dispositions
(schizophrenia), situational
demands

Thank You
 THANK YOU