READING TOPIC:

and
Language uses
in a paragraph

WRITING
categories of
transition

skills
words and
phrases.
LANGUAGE USES IN A
PARAGRAPH
CATEGORIES OF
TRANSITION WORDS
AND PHRASES.
Transition This structured list of commonly used English
transition words approximately 200, can be
considered as quasi complete. It can be used (by

Words students and teachers alike) to find the right

expression. English transition words are
essential, since they not only connect ideas, but
and also can introduce a certain shift, contrast or
opposition, emphasis or agreement, purpose,
result or conclusion, etc. in the line of argument.
Phrases The transition words and phrases have been
assigned only once to somewhat artificial
categories, although some words belong to more
than one category.
Transitional words and phrases show the relationships
between the parts of a sentence, between the sentences in a
paragraph, or between the paragraphs in a longer piece of writing
(i.e., an essay, short story, novel, magazine article, etcetera).
Although transitional words and phrases mean little by
themselves, they are very important in linking your ideas together
smoothly and logically so that your paragraphs have coherence.
Transitional words and phrases can be divided into categories
according to the kind of relationship you as a writer are trying to
show. There are eight (8) basic categories you must learn:
Agreement / Addition / Similarity

The transition words like also, in

addition, and, likewise, add
information, reinforce ideas, and
express agreement with preceding
material.
Example:
in the first place again moreover
not only ... but also to as well as
as a matter of fact and together with
in like manner also of course
in addition then likewise
coupled with equally comparatively
in the same fashion identicall correspondingly
/ way y similarly
first, second, third uniquely furthermore
in the light of like additionally
not to mention as
to say nothing of too
equally important
by the same token
 Opposition / Limitation /
Contradiction
Transition phrases like but, rather and
or, express that there is evidence to
the contrary or point out alternatives,
and thus introduce a change the line of
reasoning (contrast).
Example:
although this may be but although
true (and) still instead
in contrast unlike whereas
different from or despite
of course ..., but (and) yet conversely
on the other hand while otherwise
on the contrary albeit however
at the same time besides rather
in spite of as much as nevertheless
even so / though even though nonetheless
be that as it may regardless
then again notwithstandin
above all g
in reality
after all
Cause / Condition / Purpose

These transitional phrases present

specific conditions or intentions
Example:
in the event that If in case
granted (that) ... then provided that
as / so long as unless given that
on (the) condition only / even if
(that) when so that
for the purpose of whenever so as to
with this intention while owing to
with this in mind inasmuch as
in the hope that because of due to
to the end that as
for fear that since
in order to while
seeing / being that lest
in view of
Examples / Support / Emphasis

These transitional devices (like especially) are

used to introduce examples as support, to
indicate importance or as an illustration so
that an idea is cued to the reader.
 Example:
in other words notably in fact important to realize especially
to put it differently including in general another key point explicitly
for one thing like in particular first thing to remember specifically
as an illustration to be sure in detail most compelling expressly
in this case namely for example evidence surprisingly
for this reason chiefly for instance must be remembered frequently
to put it another truly to point often overlooked significantly
way indeed demonstrate to point out particularly
that is to say certainly to emphasize on the positive side
with attention to surely to repeat on the negative side
by all means markedly to clarify with this in mind
such as to explain
to enumerate
 Effect / Consequence / Result
Some of these transition words (thus, then, accordingly,
consequently, therefore, henceforth) are time words
that are used to show that after a particular time there
was a consequence or an effect.
Note that for and because are placed before the
cause/reason. The other devices are placed before the
consequences or effects.
 Example:

as a result for consequently

under those thus therefore
circumstances because thereupon
in that case the forthwith
for this reason then accordingly
in effect hence henceforth
Conclusion / Summary / Restatement
These transition words and phrases conclude,
summarize and / or restate ideas, or indicate a
final general statement. Also some words (like
therefore) from the Effect / Consequence
category can be used to summarize.
Example:
after all
as can be seen in fact by and large
generally speaking in summary to sum up
in the final analysis in conclusion on the whole
all things considered in short in any event
as shown above in brief in either case
in the long run in essence all in all
given these points to summarize
as has been noted on balance Obviously
in a word altogether Ultimately
for the most part overall Definitely
ordinarily
usually
 Time / Chronology / Sequence

These transitional words (like finally) have the

function of limiting, restricting, and defining
time. They can be used either alone or as part
of adverbial expressions.
 at the present time after henceforth
Example: from time to time later whenever
sooner or later last eventually
at the same time until meanwhile
up to the present time till further
to begin with since during
in due time then in time
as soon as before prior to
as long as hence forthwith
in the meantime since straightaway
in a moment when
without delay once by the time
in the first place about whenever
all of a sudden next
at this instant now until now
first, second now that

immediately formerly instantly

quickly suddenly presently
finally shortly occasionally
Many transition words in the time category
(consequently; first, second, third; further; hence;
henceforth; since; then, when; and whenever) have
other uses.
Except for the numbers (first, second, third)
and further they add a meaning of timein expressing
conditions, qualifications, or reasons. The numbers are
also used to add information or list
examples. Further is also used to indicate added space
as well as added time.
 Space / Location / Place

These transition words are often used as part of

adverbial expressions and have the function to restrict,
limit or qualify space. Quite a few of these are also
found in the Time category and can be used to
describe spatial order or spatial reference.
Example:
further
in the middle here
beyond
to the left/right there
nearby
in front of next
wherever
on this side where
around
in the distance from
between
here and there over
before
in the foreground near
alongside
in the background above
amid
in the center of below
among
down
beneath
adjacent to up
beside
opposite to under
behind
across
CAPITALIZATION
- What is capitalization?
Capitalization is the writing of a word with
its first letter in uppercase and the remaining
letters in lowercase. Experienced writers are
stingy with capitals. It is best not to use
them if there is any doubt. Rule 1. Capitalize
the first word of a document and the first
word after a period.
 RULES OF CAPITALIZATION
Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a period.

Rule 2. Capitalize proper nounsand adjectives derived from proper nouns.

Examples:
the Golden Gate Bridge
the Grand Canyon
a Russian song
a Shakespearean sonnet
a Freudian slip
The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any
group of people, places, or things. We can speak of a lake in the middle of the
country, or we can be more specific and say Lake Michigan, which distinguishes it
from every other lake on earth.
Capitalization Reference List
Brand names
Companies
Days of the week and months of the year
Governmental matters
Congress (but congressional), the U.S.
Constitution (but constitutional), the Electoral
College, Department of Agriculture. Note: Many
authorities do not
capitalize federal or stateunless it is part of the
official title: State Water Resources Control
Board, but state water board; Federal
Communications Commission, but federal
regulations.
Historical episodes and eras
the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War,
the Great Depression
Holidays
Institutions
Lowercase Reference List
Here is a list of categories not capitalized unless an
item contains a proper noun or proper adjective (or,
sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the
proper noun or adjective is capitalized.
Animals
antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied
sapsucker, German shepherd
Elements
Always lowercase, even when the name is derived
from a proper noun: einsteinium, nobelium,
californium
Foods
Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns
and adjectives, or custom-named recipes: Tabasco
sauce, Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin
tuna, Mandy's Bluefin Surprise
Heavenly bodies besides planets
Rule 3. A thorny aspect of capitalization: where does it stop? When does the Iraq
war become the Iraq War? Why is the legendary Hope Diamond not the Hope
diamond? Everyone writes New York City, so why does the Associated Press
Stylebook recommend New York state? There aren't always easy formulas or
logical explanations. Research with reference books and search engines is the
best strategy.
In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they capitalize
any word that applies to their merchandise. Domino's Pizza or Domino's pizza? Is
it Ivory Soap or Ivory soap, a Hilton Hotel or a Hilton hotel? Most writers don't
capitalize common nouns that simply describe the products (pizza, soap, hotel),
but it's not always easy to determine where a brand name ends. There
is Time magazine but also the New York Times Magazine. No one would argue
with Coca-Cola or Pepsi Cola, but a case could be made for Royal Crown cola.
If a trademark starts with a lowercase word or letter (e.g., eBay, iPhone), many
authorities advise capitalizing it to begin a sentence.
Example: EBay opened strong in trading today.
Rule 4. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is
followed by a comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or
instead of a name.
Examples:
The president will address Congress.
Chairman of the Board William Bly will preside at the conference.
The chairman of the board, William Bly, will preside.
The senators from Iowa and Ohio are expected to attend.
Also expected to attend are Senators Buzz James and Eddie Twain.
The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a
special task force.
Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, and Attorney General
Dalloway will attend.
Rule 5. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations
before full names.
Examples:
director Steven Spielberg
owner Helen Smith
coach Biff Sykes
Sometimes the line between title and occupation gets blurred. One example
is general manager: is it a title or an occupation? Opinions differ. Same
with professor: the Associated Press Stylebook considers professor a job
description rather than a title, and recommends using lowercase even before
the full name: professor Robert Ames.
However, titles replacing someone's first name are generally capitalized.
Example: Here comes Professor Ames.
Rule 6a. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address. The more
formal the title, the more likely it is to be capitalized.
Examples:
Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
We're sorry to report, Captain, that we're headed for choppy waters.
That's what you say, mister.
Good afternoon, sweetheart.
Rule 6b. Capitalize relatives' family names (kinship names) when they immediately
precede a personal name, or when they are used alone in place of a personal name.
Examples:
I found out that Mom is here.
You look good, Grandpa.
Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies.
However, these monikers are not capitalized when they are used with possessive nouns or pronouns, or when
they follow the personal name, or when they do not refer to a specific person.
Examples:
My mom is here.
Joe's grandpa looks well.
The James brothers were notorious robbers.
There's not one mother I know who would allow that.
Rule 6c. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.
Examples:
Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.
I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter.
NOUNS AND
PHRASES
 NOUNS
A noun (from Latin nmen, literally meaning "name") is a word
that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of
things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions,
qualities, states of existence, or ideas.Linguistically, a noun is a
member of a large, open part of speech whose members can
occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of
a verb, or the object of a preposition.
 PHRASES
In everyday speech, a phrase may be any group of words, often
carrying a special idiomatic meaning; in this sense it is roughly
synonymous with expression. In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group
of words (or possibly a single word) that functions as a constituent in
the syntax of a sentence, a single unit within a grammatical hierarchy.
A phrase appears within a clause, but it is possible also for a phrase to
be a clause or to contain a clause within it.
 PROPER NOUNS
Proper nouns are the names of a specific person, place, or
thing. The basic capitalization rule of proper nouns is that the
first letters are capitalized.
 Types of Proper Nouns
To help you build an understanding of the different types of proper nouns that need to
be capitalized, the following are some overall proper noun categories:

Names of People & Pets: Maria Santos, Mr. Michael Jones, Lassie
Geographical Locations: Chicago, Asia, Ireland, Mount Everest, Mississippi River
Months, Days of the Week, Holidays: Monday, January, Christmas (Note: We do not
capitalize the names of seasons: summer, winter, fall, etc.)
Astronomical Names: Mars, Jupiter, Saturn (Note: sun and moon are generally not
capitalized in sentences unless they are a part of a list of other astronomical names)
Newspapers, Magazines, Journals, Books: Chicago-Sun Times, Vogue, Journal of
Family Psychology
Organizations, Companies: Microsoft, Oxford University, Amnesty International
Religious Terms: Catholic, Islam, Hindu, God
Buildings, Monuments, Place Names: Grand Canyon, Central Park, Hyatt
Hotel
Peoples Titles: President Obama, King Henry V, Prime Minister Gordon
Brown, Judge Thomas (note: when titles are part of the name they are
capitalized; but, when titles are discussed generally, we do not capitalize them.
Example: The president of China will be in Washington D.C. next week to visit
with President Obama).
Course Names: Economics 101, Child Psychology in America, Shakespeares
Comedies (Note: Do not capitalize general course names. Example: I am
studying chemistry.)
Historical Periods & Events: World War I, the Renaissance, D-Day
Languages, Nationalities: French, English, German, American
Brand Names: Nike, Coca-Cola, Levis
 PRONOUNS
A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that,
they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose,
someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes
the place of a noun. In the sentence Joe saw Jill,
and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her
take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively.
 TYPES OF PRONOUNS
Pronouns can be divided into numerous categories including:
Indefinite pronouns those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or
places
Personal pronouns those associated with a certain person, thing, or group; all except
you have distinct forms that indicate singular or plural number
Reflexive pronouns those preceded by the adverb, adjective, pronoun, or noun to
which they refer, and ending in self or selves
Demonstrative pronouns those used to point to something specific within a sentence
Possessive pronouns those designating possession or ownership
Relative pronouns those which refer to nouns mentioned previously, acting to
introduce an adjective (relative) clause
Interrogative pronouns those which introduce a question
Reciprocal pronouns those expressing mutual actions or relationship; i.e. one anothe
Intensive pronouns those ending in self or selves and that serve to emphasize the
antecedents
 RULES OF PRONOUNS
Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of
the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in
the blank subject space for a simple sentence.

Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject.
They will follow to be verbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had
been, etc.

Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers
to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that
agrees with that pronoun.
Rule 4. In addition to subject pronouns, there are also object pronouns,
known more specifically as direct object, indirect object, and object
of a preposition (for more detail, see the definition of a verb in
the Finding Nouns, Verbs, and Subjects section). Object pronouns
include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves.
Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural
depending on the subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular verb.
If it is plural, use a plural verb.

Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody,
anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either,
neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is frequently overlooked
when using the pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of.
Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by
what follows of.
 ADJECTIVE
In linguistics, an adjective (abbreviated adj) is a
describing word, the main syntactic role of which
is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more
information about the object
signified. Adjectives are one of the English parts
of speech, although historically they were classed
together with the nouns.
 USES OF ADJECTIVES
Adjectives can tell the reader how much or how many of
something youre talking about, which thing you want passed to
you, or which kind you want.
Please use three white flowers in the arrangement.
Three and white are modifying flowers.

If you are using multiple adjectives which are commonly put

together, theres no need for a comma between the adjectives.
Look at that sweet little puppy!
If the adjectives arent usually used together,
separate them with a comma or conjunction.
Im looking for a small, good-tempered dog to keep as a pet.
My new dog is small and good-tempered.

Adjectives usually go before the noun (e.g. small child) unless one
of the following verbs are involved: be, feel, taste, smell, sound,
look, appear, seem. In these cases, the adjectives work more like
adverbs.
The child is small.
The child seems small.
 APPOSITIVES
An appositive is a noun, a noun phrase, or a noun clause
which sits next to another noun to rename it or to describe
it in another way. (The word appositive comes from the
Latin for to put near.)

Appositives are usually offset with commas, brackets, or

dashes.
Examples of Appositives
Here are some examples of appositives:

Don't leave your shoes there, or my dog, Ollie, will munch them.
(In this example, the appositive is Ollie. It is in apposition (as it's called) to
my dog.)
My best friend, Lee, caught a whelk when he was fishing for bass.
(In this example, the appositive is Lee. It is in apposition to My best friend.)
Dr Pat, the creator of the turnip brew, sold 8 barrels on the first day.
(In this example, the appositive is the creator of the turnip brew. It is in
apposition to Dr Pat.)
An Appositive Can Be a Noun, a Noun Phrase, or Noun Clause
An appositive can be a noun, a noun phrase, or a noun clause. For
example:
The beast, a lion, was starting to show interest in our party.
(In this example, the appositive is a noun.)
The beast, a large lion with a mane like a bonfire, was starting to show
interest in our party.
(In this example, the appositive is a noun phrase.)
The beast, a large lion with a mane like a bonfire which was looking hungry,
was starting to show interest in our party.
(In this example, the appositive is a noun clause.)
Punctuation Marks
Punctuation is the system of signs or symbols given to a reader
to show how a sentence is constructed and how it should be
read.Sentences are the building blocks used to construct
written accounts. They are complete statements. Punctuation
shows how the sentence should be read and makes the
meaning clear. Every sentence should include at least a capital
letter at the start, and a full stop, exclamation mark or question
mark at the end. This basic system indicates that the sentence is
complete.
 the comma ,
the full stop .
the exclamation mark !
The Basic Signs the question mark ?
of the semi-colon ;
the colon :
Punctuation the apostrophe '
quotation marks
the hyphen -
brackets ( ) or [ ]
the slash /
 The Comma (,)
The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to:
pause before proceeding
Add a phrase that does not contain any new subject
separate items on a list
use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful)
For example, in the following sentence the phrase or clause between the commas gives us
more information behind the actions of the boy, the subject of the sentence:

The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly towards the opening door.
Note that if the phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence would still make sense
although there would be a loss of information. Alternatively, two sentences could be used:

The boy ran quickly towards the opening door. He knew that his mother was about to
arrive.
Commas are also used to separate items in a list.
For example:

The shopping trolley was loaded high with bottles of beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals and cartons of
milk.
Note that in a list, the final two items are linked by the word and rather than by a comma.

Commas are used to separate adjectives.

For example:

The boy was happy, eager and full of anticipation at the start of his summer holiday.

As commas represent a pause, it is good practice to read your writing out loud and listen to where you make
natural pauses as you read it. More often than not, you will indicate where a comma should be placed by a
natural pause. Although, the rules of where a comma needs to be placed should also be followed.

For example:

However, it has been suggested that some bees prefer tree pollen.
The Full Stop (.)
A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a
point has been made and that you are about to move on to further explanations or a
related point.

Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where a
section of a quotation has been omitted when it is not relevant to the text, for example:

The boy was happy at the start of his summer holiday.

A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words
as in the following examples:

Telephone Number = Tel. No.

September = Sept.
Pages = pp.
The Exclamation Mark (!)
An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear,
anger or love. It is also used to accentuate feeling within the written spoken
word.

For example:
Help! I love you!
In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction
Stop! Police!
or to indicate humour
Ha! Ha! Ha!
The exclamation mark at the end of a sentence means that you do not need
a full stop.

Exclamation marks are a poor way of emphasising what you think are
important points in your written assignments; the importance of the point
will emphasise itself without a sequence of !!! in the text. An exclamation
mark should only be used when absolutely essential, or when taken from a
direct quote.

The exclamation mark should be used sparingly in formal and semi-formal

writing.
 The Question Mark (?)
The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is
asking a question. It always comes at the end of a
sentence:
For example:
Are we at the end?
Note that the question mark also serves as a full stop.
 The Semi-colon (;)
The semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of punctuation to use
accurately. If in doubt, avoid using it and convert the added material into a new
sentence.
As a general rule, the semi-colon is used in the following ways:
When joining two connected sentences.

For example:

We set out at dawn; the weather looked promising.

or
Assertive behaviour concerns being able to express feelings, wants
and desires appropriately; passive behaviour means complying
with the wishes of others.

The semi-colon can also be used to assemble detailed lists.

For example:

The conference was attended by delegates from Paris, France;

Paris, Texas; London, UK; Stockholm, Sweden; Colombo, Sri Lanka;
and Mumbai, India.
 The Colon (:)
The colon within a sentence makes a very pointed pause between two
phrases. There are two main uses of the colon:
It is most commonly used when listing.

For example:

She placed the following items into the trolley: beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls,
cereals and cartons of milk.
Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title.

For example:

Human Resource Management: Guidelines for Telephone Advisers

 The Apostrophe ()
The apostrophe, sometimes called an inverted comma has two main
uses.

The apostrophe indicates possession or ownership.

For example:

The girl's hat was green, (girl is in the singular).

This shows the reader that the hat belongs to the girl.

The girls' hats were green, (girls in this instance are plural, i.e. more than one girl, more than
one hat).
Another use of the apostrophe is to indicate where a letter is omitted:
For example:
We're going to do this course. (We are going to do this course.)
Isnt this a fine example of punctuation? (Is not this a fine example of punctuation?)
The time is now 7 o clock. (The time is now 7 of the clock)
Note that a common mistake is to confuse its with its.

Its indicates to the reader that a letter has been omitted.

For example:

Its a lovely day is an abbreviated way of saying: It is a lovely day.

Note that in most formal writing, the practice of using abbreviated words is inappropriate.
The Quotation or Speech Marks(.)
Quotation or speech marks are used to:

To mark out speech

When quoting someone else's speech
For example:
My grandpa said, "Share your chocolates with your friends."
"George, don't do that!"
"Will you get your books out please? said Mrs Jones, the teacher, and quieten down!"
It is worth noting that to report an event back does not require speech or quotation
marks.
For example:

Mrs Jones told the pupils to take out their books and to quieten down.
 The Hyphen (-)
The hyphen is used to link words together.

For example:
sub-part
eighteenth-century people
week-end
second-class post
gender-neutral
non-verbal
The hyphen is also used when a word is split between two lines. The hyphen
should be placed between syllables at the end of the upper line and indicates to
the reader that the word will be completed on the next line.
 The Brackets ( )
Brackets always come in pairs ( ) and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not
part of the main flow of a sentence. If you remove the words between the brackets,
the sentence should still make sense.

For example:

The strategy (or strategies) chosen to meet the objectives may need to change as the intervention
continues.
Another example is as follows:
We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common economic resources, that
strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead. Ownership of wealth, together with
occupation, are the chief basis of class differences. The major classes that exist in Western societies are
an upper class (the wealthy, employers and industrialists, plus tops executives those who own or
directly control productive resources); a middle class (which includes most white-collar workers and
professionals); and a working class (those in blue-collar or manual jobs). (Giddens, 1997, p.243)
 Square Brackets []
A different set of square brackets [ ] can be used:

to abbreviate lengthy quotations

to correct the tense of a quotation to suit the tense of your own sentence
to add your own words to sections of an abbreviated quotation.
To abbreviate lengthy quotations in an essay or report

We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common

economic resources, that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to
lead. Ownership of wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class
differences. The major classes that exist in Western societies are an upper class [];
a middle class [] and a working class [].
(Giddens, 1997, p.243)
To adjust a quotation to suit your own sentence

For example, if you were writing about class structure, you might use the
following:

According to Giddens, (1997, p.243) the [o]wnership of wealth, together

with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences.
Note, that when using square brackets, only the occasional letter as in the
above example or the occasional word (for example when changing the
tense of the sentence) would be placed in square brackets in this way.
 The Slash (/)
Many people use the slash instead of or, and etc., but this is not always
helpful to the reader. There is, however, a modern convention in
gender-neutral writing to use s/he.

Slashes are important symbols in web-addresses (URLs). The full URL for
this page is http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/punctuation1.html
Additional
information to the
punctuation
marks
 Ellipses
An ellipsis is a set of three periods ( . . . ) indicating an omission. Each period should have a single space on
either side, except when adjacent to a quotation mark, in which case there should be no space.

Informal writing

In informal writing, an ellipsis can be used to represent a trailing off of thought.

If only she had . . . Oh, it doesnt matter now.

An ellipsis can also indicate hesitation, though in this case the punctuation is more accurately described as
suspension points.

I wasnt really . . . well, what I mean . . . see, the thing is . . . I didnt mean it.

Like the exclamation point, the ellipsis is at risk of overuse.

 Dash and the Hyphen
Two kinds of dashes are used throughout written communications. They are the endash
and the emdash. An endash is a symbol (-) that is used in writing or printing to connect
numbers or to connect elements of a compound adjective, such as 1880 - 1945 or
Princeton - New York trains. However, the emdash has more complicated grammatical
use. The symbol of is used to:

Indicate a break in thought or sentence structure

Introduce a phrase added for emphasis, definition, or explanation
Separate two clauses
Use it in the following manner: We only wanted to get two birds - but the clerk talked us
into four pregnant parakeets.
A hyphen (-) is the same symbol as the endash. However, it has slightly different
usage rules. A hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or name
or between the syllables of a word, especially when divided at the end of a line
of text.

Examples of this in use include:

Between a compound name: Mrs. Smith - Reynolds

Within a compound word: back - to - back

Differences in British vs. American English
There are a few differences between punctuation in British and
American English. The following charts details some of those
differences:
British English American English

The . symbol is called a full stop a period

The ! symbol is called an exclamation mark an exclamation point

The ( ) symbols are called brackets parentheses

The [ ] symbols are called square brackets brackets