Personality and Individual

Differences
 What makes you - you?
Personality and Individual Differences

What makes people different from one another?

 Everyday observations

Starting point

BUT, Psychologists study personality in a

more calculated way.
 Today
What is personality?
Can personality change?
Is it influenced by
biological and/or cultural
factors?
What theory is behind the
oral and anal personality
types?
Can we measure our
personality?
 PERSONALITY

Definition?
An individuals characteristics, emotional
responses, thoughts and behaviours that are
relatively stable over time and across
circumstances

Personality trait:
a dispositional tendency to
act in a certain way
 A Working Definition

the dynamic
organisation within the
individual of those
psychophysical systems
that determine his
characteristic behaviour
and thought.
- Gordon Allport, 1961,p.28
 Theoretical approaches to
personality

What must we know to know a

person well?

Think of your best friend, what do you know about

them?
 What must we know to know a
person well?

In order to know people well we need to

know everything about them
from their biological makeup
to their childhood experiences
to the way they think
to the cultures where they were raised

Thus personality psychologists approach the

study of personality on many levels
 First approach: Bile!

Galen (Greek physician)

Excess of different colours of bile argued to lead to

certain characteristics!

e.g. Too much yellow bile

= bad tempered.
 Bilediscredited!

However, the idea that people could be

divided into different personality types has
remained!

Types- Different categories into which

personality characteristics can be assigned.

For example: Freuds psychosexual stages

Psychodynamic Theory of Personality
Freuds Topographical model of the mind-awareness?

aware of thoughts

can be aware of
thoughts

wishes, desires,
motives not easily
accessible
 Psychosexual Stages
and Personality

Stage Definition
Oral Pleasure through the mouth (birth18 mths)

Anal Focus on anus during toilet training (2-3 yrs)

Phallic Pleasure through genitals (3-5 yrs)

Latency Libido suppressed (6-11 yrs)

Genital Mature relations to satisfy libido (12-up)

Fixation and personality disorders

Influential theory due to its ability to explain

personality disorders.
Partial or whole fixation: failure to pass through a
stage! Oral Personalities:
continue to seek pleasure via the mouth,
such as by smoking, excessively needy

Anal-Retentive Personalities:
stubborn, overly regulating or rigid,
obsessive-compulsive tendencies
 Phallic stage

Freud used phallic as a bisexual term

At this stage children also discover the sex roles of their

parents
Oedipus complex: Boys unconscious wish to take
their fathers place. Held back by the fear of
castration.
Fixation: Boys preoccupied with demonstrations of
manhood e.g. macho.
 Phallic stage

Electra complex: Less complex. But, experience

a transfer of love from mother (as caregiver) to
fatherdue to penis envy.

Fixation: Feelings of being

Inferior to men, expressed
in flirtations, e.g. attraction
to father figures.
Fixation and personality disorders

Latency stage: Sexual development lays

dormant (suppressed into the unconscious).

Genital stage: Sexual experimentation.

Successful resolution lead to a one-to-one
relationship.
Fixation: Sexual perversions to develop
(dependant on the previous stage of fixation)
 Behavioural theories

Personality described only in terms of our

overt behaviour
The result of learning

Theory of operant conditioning

Personality formed based on punishment
and reinforcement
 Behavioural theories

Social learning (Bandura)

we learn behaviour through watching others (vicarious
learning)
Reminder: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ZXOp5PopIA
Remember the Bobo doll study?

This theory is less interested in individual differences in

personality traits and instead id focused on how people are
affected by environmental factors.
 Social Learning theory

Stresses the importance of interpretation of the situation.

Expectancy: Individuals belief that a specific consequence

will follow a specific action.
-Will it be punished or rewarded?
Expectancy also enables vicarious/observational learning.
 Humanistic Perspective

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
Emphasis on humans
uniqueness
freedom & growth
potential
Human potential
for growth
 Carl Rogers

All people have an innate real self that is good

Self-concept -- mental picture of yourself

can be accurate or inaccurate
Ideal self (who we would like to be) and actual self
(who we perceive ourselves to be) must be similar for
healthy personality to develop (and ought self).
 Carl Rogers

Personality is affected by others' beliefs about who

we are:
unconditional positive regard
(love and acceptance with no strings attached!)

conditions of worth
(certain conditions or criteria must be met before
others give us positive regard)
 Carl Rogers

Conditions of worth are important, however,

Roger argued they could stand in the way of self-
actualisation (if you devote your life to satisfying
others, wont satisfy yourself!).

Personality functions best when the individual

chooses to be who he/she wants to be, regardless
of what others have said or will say.
 Maslow

Motivation: Key aspect of

personality.
Hierarchy of needs: We ascend the
levels of needs
At the top of the hierarchy we can
fulfil our ultimate capacities as a
human being
self-actualizing tendency

Personality dysfunction occurs when

a need in the hierarchy is not met
 Measuring personality

Think again about your best friend:

-Is he/she: moody? confident? thoughtful?

Psychologists have little timetherefore

personality tests were developed

2 types of tests: Objective and projective

 Measuring Personality

Projective Tests:
-Behaviour is determined by unconscious thoughts (rather
than conscious ones).

-Psychodynamic approach
Rorschach inkblot test
 Rorschach inkblot test

One of the oldest projection tests

10 inkbots (5 black and white, 5 colour)

Shown each and asked to Describe what it looks

like?, then shown again and asked to point out what
they used to determine their answer.
 Rorschach inkblot test

Responses are scored on several dimensions:

e.g. bears playing fighting, there is blood from the

fight though. Projection: Playful=childish behaviour.
Blood=pure colour response may have trouble
controlling their response to the environment.
 Rorschach inkblot test

Originally psychodynamic, has been used empirically

since. Has been used in clinical diagnosis of
personality disorders.

However, validity of the test is questionable.

-is it measuring what is intends to measure?
Thematic apperception test
 Thematic apperception test

Another popular projection test.

Ambiguous situation: Asked to tell a story about what

is happening in the picture.

-explain the situation, what lead up to it, what the

characters are thinking and saying, and what the final
outcome will be.
 Thematic apperception test

Arguably, participants will project themselves into the

sense, their stories will reflect their needs.
 Measuring Personality

Objective tests: True/false, multiple choice,

agree/disagree with items.

Interviews
Observation
Questionnaires

http://www.fanpop.com/external/597152
 Major approach:
Type and Trait Theories

What is the difference?

Example: We could classify people into tall or

short people (types-difference categories to
which people can be assigned to).
But height is a trait-a dimension on which
people can differ along a wide range of
values.
 Type and Trait Theories

An approach that focuses on the extent to which

individuals differ in personality dispositions
Sue is an introvert.

describes a personality type

Sue is an introvert.
Therefore, Sue does not like to go to
parties, does like to read, and is sensitive.
derive an implicit personality theory
 Personality Traits

Trait Approach:

extent to which individuals differ in personality

dispositions

traits are on a continuum

Not simply patterns, but factors that underlie

these patterns and are responsible for them
 Personality Traits

How many traits are there?

Allport & Odbert (1930s-40s) = 4,500 apparent

traits

Cattell (1950s) =16 basic dimensions of personality

Eysenck (1960s) = 3 superordinate traits

McCrae & Costa (1980s-present) = 5 basic traits

Cattells Personality factors
Eysencks Three-Factor Model

Extraversion
Withdrawn Outgoing

Neuroticism
Stable Unstable

Psychoticism
Low High
 Superordinate
Extraversion

Trait Level

Sociability Dominance Assertiveness Activity Liveliness

Habitual Response Level

HR1 HR2 HR3 HR4 HR5 HR6 HR7 HR8 HR9 HR10

Specific Response Level

SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR

Hierarchical Model of Personality

 The big

C
Openness to experience
E
Conscientiousness
Extraversion A

Agreeableness N
Neuroticism
The Five-Factor Model of Personality

Extraversion
Withdrawn Outgoing
Neuroticism
Stable Unstable
Agreeableness
Low High
Conscientiousness
Undependable Dependable
Openness to experience
Closed Open
 Extraversion

Reserved Affectionate
Loner Joiner
Quiet Talkative
Passive Active
Sober Fun-loving
Unfeeling Passionate
Example item:
I feel comfortable around
people
 Neuroticism

Calm Worrying
Even-tempered Temperamental
Self-satisfied Self-pitying
Comfortable Self-conscious
Unemotional Emotional
Hardy Vulnerable
Example item:
I change my mood a lot
Agreeableness

Ruthless Soft-hearted
Suspicious Trusting
Stingy Generous
Antagonistic Acquiescent
Critical Lenient
Irritable Good-natured
Example item:
I sympathise with others feelings
Conscientiousness

Negligent Conscientious
Lazy Hardworking
Disorganized Organized
Late Punctual
Aimless Ambitious
Quitting Persevering
Example item:
I often forget to put things back
in their proper place
 Openness to Experience

Down-to-earth - Imaginative
Creative - Uncreative
Conventional - Unconventional
Routine Preference - Prefer variety
Uncurious - Curious
Conservative Liberal
Example item:
On a vacation, I prefer to go back
to a tried and true spot
 I see myself as someone who

O
C
is pretty set in my ways.
does things efficiently. E
prefers to do things alone. A
assumes the best about people.
N
is seldom sad or depressed.

Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Agree

Take the test: The Big 5 Personality test: http://test.personality-project.org/

 The Big Five Reflected in Behaviour

prominence in social organizations

A. Openness to
experience
conflict resolution tactics, greater
social support from others
B. Conscientiousness
avoidance of risky behaviours,
higher academic achievement C. Extraversion

greater engagement with existential D. Agreeableness

challenges, artistic expression
E. Neuroticism
poor marital functioning, impaired
academic performance
 Considering Traits

How many basic traits are there?

Are all traits included?
What level of specificity?
Circular reasoning, descriptive
Why does she behave that way? Because shes
dominant. How do you know shes dominant?
Because she behaves that way.
 Biological Influences

Biological processes (genes, brain structures and

neurochemistry) play an important role in determining
personality

Genes predispose certain personality traits that are

associated with behaviour tendencies

Polygenetic effects: multiple genes independently interact

with the environment to produce certain dispositions
 Biological Influences

Studies comparing identical

and fraternal twins (reared
together and apart)
Genetic factors may account for as
much as 50% in personality tests

Heritability (Twin Studies)

41% - Neuroticism
53% - Extraversion
61% - Openness
41% - Agreeableness
44% - Conscientiousness
Social-Cognitive Perspective

Behaviour learned through

conditioning & observation

What we think about our situation

affects our behaviour

Interaction of
Environment & Intellect
 Reciprocal Determinism
(Bandura)

Person: Behaviour: Environment:

Personality characteristics Type Stimuli from social or
Cognitive processes Frequency physical world
Self-regulation skills Intensity Reinforcement
 Can personality change?

People exert considerable energy trying to change

(e.g., therapists, help groups, self-help books)

Traits can be remarkably stable over the adult life span

(Heatherton & Weinberger, 1994)

Do people become wiser with age?

In general, people become less neurotic, less extraverted
and less open to new experiences and
More agreeable and more conscientious (McCrae et al.,
2000)
 Can personality change?

People adapt to novel situations by altering behaviour

but they tend to do so in ways that are consistent with
their basic personalities

Interaction between people and their social world

creates unique individuals
 The Grinch

The Grinch!

If you are not familiar with How the Grinch stole

Christmas, watch some video clips and take note of
this personality throughout

Does it change?
 Summary

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0l3y-
BMZ4TU&feature=related

14min clip to watch in your own time as a summary of

todays lecture.
 Seminars

Remember: YOU are in charge!

Read the journal What is more important thatn

being smart?

You will need to keep conversation going on the topic

for that week. Bring along things that you could talk
about