ACOUSTICS

Acoustics
The science of sound, including its
production, propagation and effects
The objective study of the physical behavior
of sound in an enclosed space
Sound
A wave motion consisting of a series of
condensations and rarefactions in an elastic
medium produced by a vibrating body
Requirements to Produce
Sound
 Requirements to Produce
Sound
1. Presence of vibrating body
2. Presence of transmitting medium
3. Presence of receiving medium
 AUDIBLE FREQUENCY RANGE

Infrasonic/Subsonic
frequencies below the audible range

Ultrasonic/Supersonic
frequencies above the audible range

Audible Range: 20 Hz 20kHz

AUDIBLE FREQUENCY
RANGE
General Interpretations of
Sound
1. Physical phenomenon consisting of
wave motion in a transmitting
medium (objective)
2. Sensation due to outside simulation
(subjective)
Physical Properties of Sound
 Physical Properties of Sound

1. Amplitude magnitude of the

vibration (pressure, current, voltage)

2. Period time it takes to complete a

vibration/cycle

3. Frequency number of vibrations /

cycle per unit time
Physical Properties of Sound

4. Wavelength physical length of a

vibration

5. Velocity of Propagation
Vsound << VRF
(344 m/sec << 3 x 108 m/sec)
 Velocity of Sound
Solids

Where:
E = Youngs Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3
 Velocity of Sound
Liquids

Where:
E = Bulks Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3
 Velocity of Sound
Gases

Where:
k = specific heat ratio = hsp/hsv
hsp = specific heat at constant pressure
hsv = specific heat at constant volume
p = gas pressure, dynes/cm2
d = density, g/cm3
 Velocity of Sounds
Dry Air/Air (for TC 20 0C)
 Velocity of Sounds
Dry Air/Air (for TC 20 0C)

where:
TK = temperature in Kelvin
Velocity of Sound
 Velocity of Sounds
Notes
Sounds travel more slowly in gases than in
liquids, and more slowly in liquids than in
solids.
Sounds travels slower with an increased
altitude (elevation if you are on solid earth),
primarily as a result and humidity changes.
Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed (3)
Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed (3)
 Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed (3)
Sound is Reflected
Echo
Becomes apparent to the listener only when the
distance from the source and the reflecting medium is
great and the difference between the original and
reflected sound is greater or equal to 1/17 of a second.
Flutter
Brought about by a series of reflections between two
parallel surfaces resulting to prolongation of sound
Creates listening fatigue
Interference
Reflection caused by two parallel surfaces, producing
standing waves
 Possibilities when a
Propagated Sound is
Obstructed
Sound is absorbed
Conversion of sound energy to heat energy
Onward transmission through
obstruction
Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)
Pitch
Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)
Pitch
Number of cycles a wave goes through in a
definite interval
The higher the frequency, the higher the
pitch
Mel unit of pitch
1000 mels pitch of 1000Hz tone at 40dB
Octave pitch interval 2:1; frequency is twice
the given tone
Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)
Tone
Timbre quality of sound

Pure Tone a sound composed of only one

frequency in which the sound pressure varies
sinusoidally with time.

Musical Sound composed of the

fundamental frequency and its harmonics
Physiological Characteristics
of Wave Motion (3)
Loudness
Fluctuation of air pressure created by sound waves
Observers auditory impression of the strength of a
sound and is associated with the rate at which
energy is transmitted to the ear.
Depends on the amplitude of the sound

Loudness Level measured by the sound level of a

standard pure tone or specified frequency which is
assessed by normal observers as being equally loud
 PHON
Phon is the unit of loudness level
when:
The standard pure tone is produced by a
sensibly plane sinusoidal progressive
sound wave coming from directly in front of
the observer and having the frequency of
1kHz
The sound pressure level in the free
progressive wave is expressed in dB above
2 x 10-5 N/m2
 SONE
Sone is the unit of loudness of an
individual listener.

Phon = 40 + 10 log2 sone

 Sound Levels
Sound Pressure (P) and
Sound Pressure Level (SPL)

Sound Pressure
The alternating component of the pressure at
a particular point in a sound field
Expressed in N/m2 or Pa
 Sound Levels
Sound Pressure Level
Equal to 20 times the logarithm to the base 10
of the ratio of the RMS sound pressure to the
reference sound pressure

Where: SPL = 20 log (P/Po)

P = rms sound pressure
Po = reference sound pressure
Po = 2 x 10-5 N/m2 or Pa or 2 x 10-4
dynes/cm2
Po = 0.0002 bar or 2.089 lb/ft2
Sound Pressure Levels
 Sound Pressure Levels
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) at any unit of
pressure in dB

SPL = 20log(P+N)

Where:
PN = rms sound pressure expressed in any of
pressure in dB
N = SPL constant corresponding to the unit
at which sound pressure is expressed
Sound Pressure Levels
 SPL Constants
SPL Constant
Unit of Sound Pressure Designation
(N)
Microbar bar 74
Pascal N/m2 94
lb/ft2 psf 127.6
mmHg mmHg 136.5
torr torr 136.5
lb/in2 psi 170.8
atm (technical) atm 193.8
atm (standard) atm 194.1
 Sound Levels
Sound Intensity (I) and
Sound Intensity Level (SIL)
Sound Intensity
Defined as the acoustic power per unit area
The basic units are W/m2 or W/cm2
The average rate of transmission of sound
energy through a cross-sectional area of 1
m2 at right angles to a particular direction.
Sound Levels
Sound Levels
 Sound Levels
For sound produced at ground level
 Sound Levels
Sound Intensity

I = 2 / d v

Where: d density of the medium (kg/m3)

v velocity of sound in medium (m/sec)
rms pressure in Pa (N/m2)
 Sound Levels
Sound Intensity in Air

I = 2 / 410

Where: dv 410 ray/sec

rms pressure in Pa (N/m2)
 Sound Levels
Sound Intensity Level

Where:
I = sound intensity,
Io = threshold intensity,
Io = 10-12 W/m2 or 10-16 W/cm2
 Sound Levels
Sound Power (W) and
Sound Power Level (PWL)

Sound Power (W)

The total energy radiated per unit time.
 Sound Levels
Sound Power Level (PWL)

Where:
W = sound power , W
Wo = reference sound power
Wo = 10-12 w
 Room Acoustics
Room Acoustics
Concerned with the behavior of sound
within an enclosed space with a view to
obtaining the optimum acoustic effect on
the occupants
Room Acoustics
 Room Acoustics
Requirements
Adequate amount of sound must reach all
parts of the room.
Even distribution of sound

Noise must be reduced to an acceptable

level.
Optimum Reverberation time, RT60
 Reverberation
Reverberation
Tendency for the sound to persist over a
definite period of time after it has been
produced originally and stopped at the
source.
 Reverberation
Reverberation
 Reverberation
Reverberation Time, RT60
Time taken for the density of sound energy
in the room to drop to 1 millionth (60dB)
below of its initial value
Optimum Periods of
Reverberation
 Factors Affecting
Reverberation Time

Volume of the room

Type of materials
Surface area of
material
 TYPES OF ROOM

LIVE ROOM
- Little absorption (RT60 > 1 sec)
DEAD ROOM
- Large absorption (RT60 < 1 sec)
ANECHOIC ROOM
- 100% absorption (free field conditions)
 Room Acoustics
Coefficient of absorption,
Ratio of incident sound and absorbed sound
Efficiency of sound absorption
 Room Acoustics
Coefficient of Absorption
 Room Acoustics
Coefficient of Absorption
 Reverberation Time
Equations
a. Sabines Equation
For actual reverberation time with average
absorption less than or equal to 0.2; (absorption
coefficient, 0.2)

Where;
V = room volume,
m3
A = total absorption
units
 Reverberation Time
Equations

Where;
V = room volume, ft3
A = total absorption units
 Reverberation Time
Equations
Example:

Calculate the reverberation time of a

broadcast studio 8 ft. high by 13 ft
wide by 20 ft. long. The material used
has a total absorption of 180.75
sabines.
 Reverberation Time
Equations
b. Norris Eyring Equation
For actual reverberation time with average
absorption greater than 0.2; ( 0.2 )

Where;
V = room volume, m3
= average coefficient
of reflecting surfaces
 Reverberation Time
Equations
Example:

A lecture room, 16 m. long, 12.5 m.

wide and 5 m. high has a reverberation
time of 0.75 sec. Calculate the average
absorption coefficient of the surfaces
using the Eyring formula.
 Reverberation Time
Equations
c. Stephens and Bate Equation
For ideal reverberation time computation

Where:
r = 4 for speech
r = 5 for orchestra
r = 6 for choir
Optimum Volume / person

Concert Halls 7.1

Italian type opera houses 4.2 5.1
Churches 7.1 9.9
Cinemas 3.1
Rooms for Speeches 2.8
 Reverberation Time
Equations
Example:

Suggest the optimum volume and

reverberation time for a concert hall to
be used mainly for orchestral music
and to hold 450 people.
MICROPHONES
 Microphone

An acoustic device classified as a transducer

which converts sound waves into their
corresponding electrical impulses
Transducer
A device which when actuated by energy in
one transmission system, supplies energy in
the same form or in another form, to a
second transmission system
 Classification of
Microphones
A. General Categories

1. Passive (Generator Type) Microphone

Does not require external power source

2. Active (Amplifier Type) Microphone

Needs an external power source for its
operation
 Classification of
Microphones
B. According to Impedance

1. High Impedance
Greater than 1000 ohms

2. Low Impedance
1000 ohms and below
 Classification of
Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling

Pressure Type
- Actuated by the
pressure of sound
waves against
the diaphragm.
 Classification of
Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling

Velocity Type
- actuated by
velocity of
sound waves
 Classification of
Microphones
C. According to Method of Coupling

Contact Type
 Classification of
Microphones
D. According to Elements Used
1. Dynamic
Uses the principle of electromagnetic
induction
Electromagnetic moving coil microphone
A medium-priced instrument of high
sensitivity
Classification of
Microphones
 Classification of
Microphones
2. Ribbon
Velocity microphone
Ribbon moves as if it is a part of the air
that experiences rarefactions and
condensations
Classification of
Microphones
 Classification of
Microphones
3. Capacitor
Condenser type or electrostatic
microphone
 Classification of
Microphones
4. Carbon
Uses principle of variable resistance
 Classification of
Microphones
5. Crystal
Uses principle of piezoelectric effect
 Classification of
Microphones
6. Magnetic
Operated on the magnetic reluctance due to
the movable core
 Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Unidirectional
 Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Bidirectional
 Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Omnidirectional
 Classification of
Microphones
E. According to directional
Characteristics
Cardioid
 Characteristics of
Microphone
1. Frequency Response
Frequency over which the microphone will
operate normally

Magnetic : 60 10 000Hz
Crystal : 50 10 000Hz
Condenser : 50 15 000Hz
Carbon : 200 3 000Hz
 Characteristics of
Microphone
2. Sensitivity
Ability that would be covered by the
microphone
3. Dynamic Range
Range of sound intensity that would be
covered by the microphone
 Special Types of
Microphones
Line Microphone
Capable of picking up sound from a great
distance at an angle of 45 degrees and is
highly sensitive
 Special Types of
Microphones
Differential Microphone
Used in noisy places; good up to 3-in
distance
LOUDSPEAKERS
 Types of Loudspeakers
Direct Radiator Type
Those in which the vibrating surface
(diaphragm) radiates sound directly into the
air

1. Dynamic or Moving Coil Loudspeaker

Makes use of a moving coil in a magnetic
field and a permanent magnet
Types of Loudspeakers
Dynamic or Moving Coil Loudspeaker
Types of Loudspeakers
Electrostatic Loudspeaker
Operates on the same principle as a
condenser microphone
 Types of Loudspeakers
Horn Type
Those in which a horn is interposed between the
diaphragm and the air
Used for efficient coupling of sound into the air

Types:
Conical Horn
Parabolic Horn
Exponential Horn
Hyperbolic Horn
 Types of Loudspeakers
To cover the entire range of audible
frequencies, the following speakers
are used:
 Types of Loudspeakers
Woofer for low frequencies
 Types of Loudspeakers
Tweeter for high frequencies
 Types of Loudspeakers
Midrange for normal range
 Types of Loudspeakers
Subwoofer for very low frequencies
DIVIDING NETWORK
 Loudspeaker Phasing
When more than one speaker is used:
Phasing must be uniform
Polarities and voice coils are in phase such
that the cone of all the speakers move
inwards at the same instant.
 Loudspeaker Enclosure
(Baffle)
Loudspeaker mounting that is used to
prevent the sound waves from the rear
from interfering with the sound waves
in the front of speaker
 QUESTIONS

1. Which best describe the sound wave?

a. It may be longitudinal
b. It is always transverse
c. It is always longitudinal
d. All of the above

2. Which of the following cannot travel through a vacuum?

a. Electromagnetic wave
b. Radio wave
c. Sound wave
d. Light wave
3. Through which medium does sound travel fastest?
a. Air
b. Water
c. Steel
d. Mercury

4. Speed that is faster than that of sound.

a. Ultrasonic
b. Supersonic
c. Subsonic
d. Transonic
5. What is the speed of sound in air at 20C?
a. 1087 ft/s
b. 1100 ft/s
c. 1126 ft/s
d. 200 ft/s

6. Calculate a half wavelength sound for sound of 16000

Hz
a. 35 ft
b. 10 ft
c. 0.035 ft
d. 100 ft
7. The lowest frequency that a human ear can hear is
a. 5 Hz
b. 20 Hz
c. 30 Hz
d. 20 kHz

8. Sound that vibrates at frequency too high for the

human ear to hear (over 20 kHz)
a. Subsonic
b. Ultrasonic
c. Transonic
d. Stereo
9. The frequency interval between two sounds whose frequency
ratio is 2.
a. Octave
b. Half octave
c. Third-octave
d. Decade

10. A 16 KHz sound is how many octaves higher than a 500

Hz sound
a. 2
b. 5
c. 4
d. 8
11. Sound waves composed of but one frequency is a/an
a. Infra sound
b. Pure tone
c. Structure borne
d. Residual sound

12. Sound wave has two main characteristics which are

a. Highness and loudness
b. Tone and loudness
c. Pitch and loudness
d. Rarefactions and compressions
13. When waves bend away from straight lines of travel, it is
called
a. Reflection
b. Diffraction
c. Rarefaction
d. Refraction

14. The amplitude of sound waves, the maximum displacement

of each air particle, is the property which perceive as _____ of
a sound
a. Pitch
b. Intensity
c. Loudness
d. Harmonics
15. It is the weakest sound that average human hearing can
detect.
a. SPL = 0 dB
b. Threshold of hearing
c. Reference pressure = 2 x 10-5N/m2
d. A, b, c

16. What is a device that is used to measure the hearing

sensitivity of a person?
a. Audiometer
b. OTDR
c. SLM
d. Spectrum analyzer
17. What is the device used in measuring sound pressure levels
incorporating a microphone, amplification, filtering and a
display.
a. Audiometer
b. OTDR
c. SLM
d. Spectrum analyzer

18. It is the device used to calibrate an SLM?

a. Microphone
b. Pistonphone
c. Telephone
d. Filter
19. _____ is the sound power measured over the area upon
which is received.
a. Sound pressure
b. Sound energy
c. Sound intensity
d. Sound pressure level

20. A measure of the intensity of sound in comparison to

another sound intensity
a. Phon
b. Decibel
c. Pascal
d. Watts
21. Calculate the sound intensity level in dB of a sound whose
intensity is 0.007 W/m2.
a. 95 dB
b. 91 dB
c. 98 dB
d. 101 dB

22. What is the sound pressure level for a given sound whose
RMS pressure is 200 N/m2?
a. 200 dB
b. 20 dB
c. 140 dB
d. 14 dB
23. What is the sound intensity for an RMS pressure of 200
Pascal?
a. 90 W/m2
b. 98 W/m2
c. 108 W/m2
d. 88 W/m2

24. The sound pressure level is increased by _____ dB if the

pressure is doubled.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6
25. The sound pressure level is increased by _____ dB if the
intensity is doubled.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6

26. If four identical sounds are added what is the increase in

level in dB?
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6
27. The transmission of sound from one room to an adjacent
room, via common walls, floors or ceilings.
a. Flanking transmission
b. Reflection
c. Refraction
d. Reverberation

28. _____ is the continuing presence of an audible sound after

the sound source has stop.
a. Flutter echo
b. Sound concentration
c. Sound shadow
d. Reverberation
29. Required time for any sound to decay to 60 dB
a. Echo time
b. Reverberation time
c. Delay time
d. Transient time

30. A room containing relatively little sound absorption

a. Dead room
b. Anechoic room
c. Live room
d. Free-field
31. A room in which the walls offer essentially 100% absorption,
therefore simulating free field conditions.
a. Dead room
b. Anechoic room
c. Live room
d. Closed room

32. Calculate the reverberation time of the room, which has a

volume of 8700 ft3 and total sound absorption 140 sabines.
a. 0.3 sec
b. 3.5 sec
c. 3 sec
d. 0.53 sec
33. It is an audio transducer that converts acoustic pressure in
air into its equivalent electrical impulses
a. Loudspeaker
b. Amplifier
c. Baffle
d. Microphone

34. _____ is a pressure type microphone with permanent coil as

a transducing element.
a. Dynamic
b. Condenser
c. Magnetic
d. Carbon
35. A microphone which has an internal impedance of 25
k is _____ type.
a. High impedance
b. Low impedance
c. Dynamic
d. Magnetic

36. A microphone that uses the piezoelectric effect

a. Dynamic
b. Condenser
c. Crystal
d. Carbon
37. _____ is a type of loudspeaker driver with an effective
diameter of 5 inches used at midrange audio frequency.
a. Tweeter
b. Woofer
c. Mid-range
d. A or C

38. _____ is measure of how much sound is produced from the

electrical signal.
a. Sensitivity
b. Distortion
c. Efficiency
d. Frequency response
39. It describes the output of a microphone over a range of
frequencies.
a. Directivity
b. Sensitivity
c. Frequency response
d. All of the above

40. A loudspeaker radiates an acoustic power of 1 mW if the

electrical input is 10 W. What is its rated efficiency?
a. -10 dB
b. -20 dB
c. -30 dB
d. -40 dB
41. An amplifier can deliver 100 W to a loudspeaker. If the rated
efficiency of the loudspeaker is -60 dB. What is the maximum
intensity 300 ft from it?
a. 10 dB
b. 20 dB
c. 30 dB
d. 40 dB

42. Speaker is a device that

a. Converts sound waves into current and voltage
b. Converts current variations into sound waves
c. Converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
d. Converts electrical energy to electromagnetic energy
43. The impedance of most drivers is about _____ ohms at their
resonant frequency.
a. 4
b. 6
c. 8
d. 10

44. It is a transducer used to convert electrical energy to

mechanical energy.
a. Microphone
b. Baffle
c. Magnetic assemble
d. Driver
45. It is an enclosure used to prevent front and back wave
cancellation.
a. Loudspeaker
b. Driver
c. Baffle
d. Frame

46. A circuit that divides the frequency components into

separate bands in order to have individual feeds to the
different drivers.
a. Suspension system
b. Dividing network
c. Magnet assembly
d. Panel board
47. _____ is early reflection of sound.
a. Echo
b. Pure sound
c. Reverberation
d. Intelligible sound

48. Noise reduction system used for film sound in movie.

a. Dolby
b. DBx
c. dBa
d. dBk
49. Using a microphone at less than the recommended working
distance will create a _____ which greatly increases the low
frequency signals.
a. Roll-off
b. Proximity effect
c. Drop out
d. None of the choices

50. What is the unit of loudness of an individual listener?

a. Sone
b. Phon
c. Decibel
d. Mel
51. A unit of noisiness related to the perceived noise level
a. Noy
b. dB
c. Sone
d. Phon

52. What is the loudness level of a 1KHz tone if its intensity is

1 x 10-5W/cm2?
a. 100 phons
b. 105 phons
c. 110 phons
d. 100 phons
53. A transducer that converts acoustic signals into electrical
signals.
a. microphone
b. loudspeaker
c. both a and b
d. none of these

54. A characteristic of a microphone which indicates the

frequency range over which the microphone the frequency
range over which the microphone will operate normally.
a. sensitivity
b. frequency response
c. dynamic range
d. directional characteristic
55. An ability of the microphone to detect very slight changes of
sound.
a. sensitivity
b. frequency response
c. dynamic range
d. directional characteristic

56. The range of sound intensity that would be covered by the

microphone.
a. sensitivity
b. frequency response
c. dynamic range
d. directional characteristic
57. A special microphone characterized by a long perforated
tube and high sensitivity, suitable for TV applications.
a. line microphone
b. dynamic microphone
c. differential microphone
d. ribbon microphone

58. A sound intensity that could cause painful sensation to the

human ear.
a. threshold of sense
b. threshold of pain
c. hearing threshold
d. sensation intensity
59. What is the speed of sound in a material having a density of
1000 kg/cu.m. and Youngs modulus of elasticity of 2.3 x
10exp 9 N/sq.m.?
a. 1517 m/sec
b. 1571 m/sec
c. 1715 m/sec
d. 1751 m/sec

60. In acoustics, the volume velocity component is a function of

the _____ of the material.
a. density
b. volume
c. diameter
d. Youngs modulus
61. If the sound source radiates 1 watt, what is its sound power
level?
a. 0 dB
b. 60 dB
c. 120 dB
d. 240 dB

62. If a note has a fundamental frequency of 100Hz, what is its

5th octave?
a. 6400 Hz
b. 3200 Hz
c. 500 Hz
d. 1600 Hz
63. A church has an internal volume of 2550 cu.m. When it
contains absorption of 186 metric sabines, what will be its
reverberation time in sec.?
a. 2
b. 2.2
c. 2.5
d. 3.0