Learning Objectives

Understand development of sociology

Explain development of sociological theories
Explain theoretical perspectives

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 The Origins of Sociology

Industrial Revolution
Technological innovations lead to
rearrangements in peoples lives
Social and Political Changes
Ordinary people gained a voice in social
affairs
Sociology Emerges
New sociologists attempt to make sense of
this new way of life
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 The Development of Sociology

Sociology emerged as a separate discipline in

the nineteenth century
This was a time of great social upheaval due
largely to the French and Industrial
Revolutions
Several early sociologists shaped the direction
of the discipline

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 Sociological Theory
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Coined the term sociology
Suggested the use of positivismapplying the
scientific approach to the social world
Comte saw sociology as the product of a three-
stage historical development:
- The theological stage, in
which thought was guided by
religion
- The metaphysical stage, a
transitional phase
- The scientific stage 4
 Sociological Theory

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

In the theological stage, the human mind,
seeking the essential nature of beings, the causes
(the origin and purpose) of all effectssupposes
all phenomena to be produced by the immediate
action of supernatural beings.

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 Sociological Theory
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
In the metaphysical stagethe mind
supposesabstract forces capable of producing
all phenomena.
Reality explained in terms of abstractions:
Essence
Existence
Substance
Accident

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 Sociological Theory
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
In the positive (scientific) stage explanations
are based on scientific laws discovered
through
Experimentation
Observation
Logic

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 Sociological Theory
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
One of his primary goals was to get sociology
recognized as a separate academic discipline.
He was interested in understanding the social
factors that influence individual behavior; he
studied suicide rates among different groups
and concluded that social integrationthe
degree to which people are tied to their social
groupwas a key social factor in suicide. He
showed that suicide rates were higher in
societies where norms were unclear or
contradictory.
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 Sociological Theory
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Durkheims third concern was that social
research be practical; sociologists should not
only diagnose the causes of social problems
but should also develop solutions for them.
Durkheims Anomie:
Anomie is the breakdown of social norms
regulating behavior.
Durkheim and other sociological theorists
coined anomie as a reaction against, or
retreat from, the social controls of society.
All deviant behavior stems from a state of
anomie, including suicide.
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 Sociological Theory
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Durkheim on Crime:
His views on crime were unconventional at
the time.
Crime serves as a social function, meaning
that it has a purpose in society.
He saw crime as being able to release certain
social tensions and so have a cleansing or
purging effect in society.

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 Sociological Theory

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Much of Webers work was a critique or
clarification of Marx
Weber was also interested in bureaucracies
and the process of rationalization in society
Like Durkheim, Max Weber, was interested
in the way European societies were changing.
The key change was the increase of
rationality as the basis of human behavior.

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 Sociological Theory

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Rationality is a form of human action in
which goals and objectives are set, and then
achieved in the most efficient way possible.
The choice of a behavior is based on how
quickly and easily it will allow a person to
reach a chosen goal or objective.

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 Sociological Theory

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Weber believed that Western world had come

to emphasize rationality so completely that it
dominate every aspect of modern social life.
Despite its advantages, Weber also
considered its negative influence on human
societies.

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 Sociological Theory
Max Weber (1864-1920)
Weber saw the bureaucracy as the classic
example of rationalization with following set of
characteristics:
A division of labor among the members, with
everyone having specialized duties and
functions;
A well-defined rank order of authority
among members;
A system of rules covering the rights and
duties of all members in all positions;
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 Sociological Theory
Max Weber (1864-1920)
Rules and procedures for carrying out all
tasks;
Impersonality in the relations among
members;
Selection for membership, employment, and
promotion based on competence and
expertise.
These features of bureaucracy are what
sociologists call an ideal type (or ideal
bureaucracy).
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 Sociological Theory
Max Weber (1864-1920)

Ideal type of bureaucracy should describe the

characteristics that appear to some degree in
any large organization.
One of these characteristics - the authority -
requires some special attention.
Authority refers to legitimate power; it is
the exercise of power accepted by those over
whom it is exerted. Weber differentiated
among three types of authority systems:
traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal. 16
 Sociological Theory

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Traditional authority stems from a long-
lasting system of beliefs. An example would
be a leader who comes to power because his
or her family or clan has always provided the
groups leadership.

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 Sociological Theory
Max Weber (1864-1920)
A charismatic leader derives his or her
authority from extraordinary abilities or
characteristics. Charisma is the
extraordinary, sometimes supernatural,
qualities of person. Charisma is also often
derived from the beliefs of the followers. As
long as a person believes he or she has special
qualities, or it is believed by the followers,
authority will be derived from charisma.

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 Sociological Theory
Max Weber (1864-1920)
In a rational-legal authority system, leaders
derive their authority from rules and
regulations of the system rather than from
their personal attitudes.
As societies become increasingly rationalized,
rational-legal authority would triumph over
traditional and charismatic authority.
In other words, the modern world would
become increasingly bureaucratized.

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 Sociological Theory

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Marx is the father of conflict theory
Saw human history in a continual state of
conflict between two major classes:
Owners of the means of production
(capitalists)
Proletariatthe workers
Predicted that revolution would occur
producing first a socialist state, followed by a
communist society.
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 Sociological Theory
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Humanist: wanted all individuals to reach
their full human potential
Believed humans make their own history
(historical method)
Controlling material production
division of labor formation of economic
social classes Class struggle
Trying to combine material and ideal
factors/ structural and cultural factors
He saw society as systematic and structural
and class as a fundamental dimension of
society that shapes social behavior.
 Sociological Theory

Class differences have a lot to do with

possession of personal property
Believed the exploited would become conscious
and unite communism elimination of class
struggle
Main ideas behind communism are stated in
the communist manifesto
 Sociological Theory

A theory is a statement of how and why

specific facts are related. The goal of
sociological theory is to explain social
behavior in the real world.

Theories are based on theoretical

paradigms, sets of assumptions that guide
thinking and research.

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 Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism

Functionalism sees society as a system of

highly interrelated parts that work together
harmoniously
Society is a combination of different
parts/institutions such as:
Family, religion, economy and educational
system
These institutions secure the evolution and
growth of society

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 Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism

The image that functionalists use to

understand society is a living organism
Each part of society works together for the
benefit of the whole much like a living
organism
According to functionalists, society is
relatively stable, which means that things
occur in society for a specific function and
those functions help maintain stability.

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 Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism

The characteristics of society:

Well planned uniformity
Stability and equilibrium between different
parts
Consensus of the main values
Every institution has a function which helps
society to remain stable
What is, is good natural selection of good
institutions/functions

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 Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism

Functionalistic research questions?

Mapping, describing and
analysing
The positive functions
The institutions
(The dysfunctions)

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 Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory

Conflict theory is grounded in the work of Karl

Marx
Society is understood to be made up of
conflicting interest groups who vie for power
and privilege
This dynamic results in continuous social
change, which is the normal state of affairs
Conflict theory focuses heavily on inequality
and differential distribution of power and
wealth
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 Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory

Conflict perspective in modern sociology

Not only focusing on class struggle as Marx did,
but on the overall power structure in society,
such as conflicts between different groups of
interests
Producers and consumers, employers
and employed, Muslims and Christians,
teachers and students, parents and kids,
personality and culture

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 Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory

Conflict causes social change

In every society there are conflicts; conflict is

the driving force of social change

Conflict does not necessary mean violence,

rather tension, competition or disagreement
about objectives and values, conflict of interests

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 Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory

Research questions?
Mapping of power-relations

Someone is making benefit of the situation at

the expense of someone else
How can we dissolve the conflict? Can there be
a win-win solution?

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 Conflict vs. Functionalist Perspective

The conflict paradigm highlights parts of

society where functionalists usually do not
focus on
The weakness of the conflict paradigm is that
they miss the consensus- and balance in society

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 Theoretical Perspectives: The Interactionist
Perspective

Focuses on how individuals make sense of and

interpret the world
This perspective tends to focus on the micro-
order of small groups
Has given rise to several specific approaches:
Symbolic Interactionism developed by
George Herbert Mead
Ethnomethodology developed by Harold
Garfinkel
Dramaturgy developed by Erving Goffman
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 Symbolic Interactionist

Examines peoples day-to-day interactions

and their behavior in small groups (micro-
level)
Society is the sum of the interactions of
individuals and groups
Subjective Reality
Each persons interpretation or
definition of a given situation (shared or
not shared symbols)

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 Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives

George Herbert Mead American Sociologist

(1863-1931) is regarded as the founder of the
interactionist perspective
Symbolic interactionists view symbols- things
that we attach meaning- as the basis of social
life.
A symbol is something representing something
else:
symbols range from words and language
to nonverbal gestures and signs.
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 Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives
George Herbert Mead American Sociologist
(1863-1931) is regarded as the founder of the
interactionist perspective.
We then use these symbols to develop a sense
of self, or identity.
Self is your identity, its what makes you who
you are and separates you from others.
According to Mead, you couldnt have a self
without symbols or without someone to pass
those symbols to you.
In other words, you learn who you are through
others. 36
 Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives
George Herbert Mead American Sociologist
(1863-1931) is regarded as the founder of the
interactionist perspective.
Mead proposed that symbols build society.
Symbols have meanings and meaning directs
our lives.
The symbols a society uses help us understand
the people in that society.
Symbols help us define a situation and
determine what we should do about it.

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 Comparing Theoretical Perspectives
Perspective Scope of Point of View Focus of
Analysis Analysis
Structural Macro 1.Various parts Functional
Functionalism Level of society are and
interdependent dysfunctional
aspects of
2. Social systems society
are highly stable
3.Social life
governed by
consensus
& cooperation

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 Comparing Theoretical Perspectives
Perspective Scope of Point of View Focus of
Analysis Analysis
Conflict Macro 1. Society 1. How social
Theory Level accommodates inequalities
between competing produce
conflict
interest groups
2.Who
2. Society unstable benefits from
and prone to change social
3. Social life arrangements
conflict-laden

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 Comparing Theoretical Perspectives
Perspective Scope of Point of View Focus of
Analysis Analysis
Interactionist Micro 1. Actions have How people
Level symbolic make sense of
meanings their world
2. Meanings can
vary

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 How are the Three Paradigms
Interrelated?

No single paradigm fits every situation.

To get a complete picture, many sociologists
use all three paradigms.
In this way, the three paradigms are
interrelated and work together to help us
figure out why society is the way it is.

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